Persian campaigns in Egypt in 385-342 BC. e. - military campaigns of the Persians with the aim of subjugating the Egypt that had fallen from their power.
At the very end of the V century BC. e. Egypt regained its independence as a result of the Amirtei uprising , and from that time one of the tasks of Persian politics was to return such important territory to its authority. Achieving this goal was difficult because of the low combat capability of the Persian army, as well as constant internal turmoil in the Achaemenid Empire itself, and as a result took almost 60 years.
Content
Hike 385-383 BC. e.
In preparation for the war with Persia, the Egyptians were actively looking for allies. In 395 BC. e. Egypt sent considerable assistance to the Spartan fleet, assembled from Rhodes , but the ships were intercepted by the Athenians. In 389 BC e. Achoris entered into an alliance with the king of Salamis in Cyprus, Evagor , who was greatly helped against the Persians. The following year, the alliance of Egypt and Athens was concluded with the mediation of Evagoras. The Egyptian king also enlisted the support of Barki ( Cyrene ), the Pisidians, and the Arabs of Palestine [1] .
With the help of the Athenian strategist Khabriya , who was forced to leave Cyprus after the signing of Antalkidov’s peace , and around 386 BC. e. hired to serve in Egypt, extensive work was carried out to strengthen the defense of the eastern Delta [2] .
The Persians made their first attempt to return Egypt to their power in the 380s. BC Oe., apparently, after the conclusion of Antalkidov peace, and immediately before a decisive offensive in Cyprus . Abrokom , Farnabaz and Tifravst were appointed to command the troops. The war lasted for three years, according to the most reasonable dating, in 385-383 BC. e., and did not bring the Persians any success. Moreover, with the support of the Arabs and Cypriots, the Egyptians appear to have launched a counteroffensive in southern Syria [3] .
According to Isocrates , the king of Persia sent
on this war the noblest of the Persians, Abrokom, Tifravsta and Pharnabaz. Having spent three years there and enduring more harm than they did, these commanders didn’t retreat with such shame that the rebels were no longer content with their independence, but sought to gain power over their neighbors?
- Isocrates . Iv. Panegyric, 140.
Information on the course of hostilities in the available sources is not preserved.
Hike 373 BC e.
In 380/379 BC. e., preparing a new campaign, the Persians have made the Athenians recall Kabriya from Egypt. The commander of the Persian troops was appointed Farnabaz , which took several years to prepare the campaign. As the commander of the mercenaries, the Persians were asked to send Iphicrates , and the Athenians agreed, since they hoped to ensure the friendly position of Persia in the war with Sparta that had lasted for several years [4] .
According to Diodorus, undoubtedly, greatly exaggerated, the army gathered in the city of Aku in 374/373 BC. e., numbered 200 thousand barbarians and 20 thousand Greek mercenaries [5] ( Cornelius Nepos indicates the figure of 12 thousand [6] ). The fleet consisted of 30 triremes, two hundred other ships and a large number of transports [5] .
To pay mercenaries, the Persians minted the original coin, which combined Persian and Greek symbols: the obverse depicted an archer, and on the reverse - the head of Athena [7] .
The relationship between the commanders did not work out right away. According to Diodorus , Habrius wondered why Farnabaz, so sensible and brave in speeches, was so sluggish and slow in action. He answered the direct question that he is the master of his word, but the king is the master of his actions [8] .
The slowness of the Persians allowed Pharaoh Nectanebo to strengthen the land approaches to the Delta, canalize all the arms of the Nile, and prepare well for defense. Initially, Farnabaz planned to conduct a landing at Pelusius , but after seeing how it was well protected, he changed the plan and, together with Iphicrate and three thousand soldiers of the vanguard, landed at the other Nile branch in front of the fortress of Mendezius, which covered the mouth. The Egyptians brought three thousand infantry and cavalry to dislodge the enemy from the captured bridgehead, but in a fierce battle were defeated, thanks to the timely landing of reinforcements. Then the troops of Iphicrates took the fort [9] .
From the prisoners, the Athenian strategist learned that Memphis was not sufficiently prepared for defense, and suggested that Pharnabase immediately attack the Egyptian capital until the main enemy forces arrived there. Persian replied that he would go on the march only when the troops fully landed, and superior strength would be ensured. Ifikrat, who understood that the initiative should not be lost, offered to take the city with the help of some mercenaries, but even here he was refused. In the meantime, while the Persians were losing time, the Egyptians pulled the troops into Memphis, and then with large forces marched on Mendesia. In a battle held near the destroyed fortress, they, thanks to their numerical advantage, defeated the Persians, inflicting heavy losses on them [10] .
The campaign dragged on, began to spill the Nile, and the Persians had to be evacuated from Egypt. On the way back, the relationship between Iphicrates, to which the Persian commanders wrote denunciations, and Farnabaz finally deteriorated, and the Athenian secretly escaped by ship one night as he was afraid to repeat the fate of Konon . Farnabaz sent ambassadors to Athens, accusing Ifikrah of failing the campaign, but the Athenians replied that they themselves would conduct an investigation, and if they found any violations, they would punish the strategist [11] .
Thus, despite the many years of preparation and the enormous costs, the expedition ended in a shameful failure due to the fault of the commander in chief, who was afraid to make responsible decisions, for which, in case of failure, he could be attacked by royal anger.
Hike 373 BC e. it is famous mainly for the fact that it was during the preparation for it that Iphicrate completed the creation of a new type of warrior - Peltastov [6] .
Farnabaz was replaced as commander of Datam , and the commander of the mercenaries in the summer of 372 BC. e. Timofey was supposed to become, but a new campaign against Egypt did not take place, since Datam raised a revolt against the king [12] .
War 361 BC. er
Began in 362 BC. e. Egypt's king Tah made an alliance with the rebel satraps against Artaxerxes to go on the offensive in Syria and Palestine. According to Diodorus, Tah collected 80 thousand. army, which joined 10 thousand Greek mercenaries [13] . Their commander was appointed the Spartan king Agesilaus , sent by his government to earn money for the treasury. He brought with him a thousand hoplites (perhaps neodeodes [14] ; Plutarch considers them mercenaries) and 30 Spartis as advisors [15] . The commander of the fleet (200 Trier) was appointed Habri, hired to serve as a private person [13] .
The cost of mercenaries and other military expenses required money, but in Egypt, with its archaic economy, monetary circulation was underdeveloped, and therefore, under the leadership of Khabriya, a sophisticated financial reform was carried out, which allowed the precious metals to be withdrawn from the population. In addition, according to the Athenian model, an extraordinary war tax was introduced [16] , [17] .
Agesilaus and Habrii advised Tahu to remain in Egypt, and entrust the troops to his generals, but the king did not follow this sensible advice. In the spring of 361 BC. e. The Egyptian army, divided into two armies, invaded Syria and Palestine, whose rulers also rebelled against Persia. The hike began successfully. The army, in which the king was located, acted in Phenicia, the other, which was commanded by Nektaneb (supposedly Taha's nephew) moved to Northern Syria [18] .
At this time, the father of Nectanebo, who was left by the governor in Egypt, rebelled against the king and invited his son to become Pharaoh and oppose Taha. Nectaneb bowed the army to his side and proclaimed himself king. [18] Taha’s last hope was the Greek mercenaries, but if Habrii remained loyal while the chances of victory remained, then Agesilaus decided to go to the usurper’s side. Tah and Habriy tried to dissuade him and even sent ambassadors to Sparta with a request to remain loyal to the allies, but the local government with its usual cynicism stated that Agesilaus is free to make any decision if only it would benefit the state [19] .
As a result, Tahu had to flee to his ally, Straton Sidon , and then to the court of the Persian king, and a civil war broke out in Egypt with the active participation of Agesilaus [20] .
Laconophil Xenophon tried to justify the actions of Agesilaus [21] , but the authors of the pro-Safari orientation, on whose works Plutarch was based, rightly point out that the aged Spartan king (he was already over 80), having betrayed the employer, violated a kind of honor code of the mercenaries, which finally tainted his reputation [19] , [22] .
In this way, Agesilaus with his mercenaries went over to the side of Nectanebid, having committed an inappropriate and inappropriate act on the pretext of benefiting the fatherland; for if this preposition is taken away, then the most fair name for such an act would be treason.
- Plutarch . Agesilaus, 37.
Hike 350 BC. er
A new attempt to conquer Egypt was undertaken by King Artaxerxes III . In preparation for the campaign, Persian ambassadors in 351 BC. e. visited the largest Greek states with an offer to take part in the campaign. Athens and Sparta confirmed their friendly relations with Persia, but refused to conclude an alliance and did not give troops. The Thebans , who desperately needed money during the Third Holy War , according to Yu. Belokh , in exchange for 300 talents provided a thousand hoplites led by Lakrat [23] .
Details of the campaign are unknown (Diodorus only reports that the Persian king had a huge army, and the Egyptian army was commanded by experienced strategists, the Athenian Diophantus and Spartan Lamiah), and the result was such a shameful defeat that after it, Phenicia and Cyprus were besieged from the Persian king.
Isocrates in speech addressed in 346 BC. e. Philip of Macedon writes the following about the defeat of Artaxerxes:
Having collected the largest he could, the army and went against them on a campaign, he returned from there not only defeated, but also ridiculed by all, not worthy to be either a king or a commander. Cyprus, Phenicia, Cilicia and the neighboring countries, from where the Persians received the fleet, belonged to the king then; but now some have fallen away, others are in a state of war and are in such distress that the king has no benefit from these peoples, and they will be useful to you if you want to start a war against him.
- Isocrates . V. Philip, 101-102.
Hike 343-342 BC. er
It is assumed that the last Persian campaign in Egypt was the final stage of the war started by Artaxerxes in order to win back all the fallen away territories (345-342 BC). Indeed, before moving to Egypt, it was necessary to return Phenicia and Cyprus [24] .
Phenicia and Cyprus
The center of the Phoenician uprising was Tripolis , located between Arvad and Byblos . King Sidon Tennes , who led the Phoenicians, received in 346/345 BC. e. from Egypt 4,000 Greek mercenaries led by the Rhodian Mentor . With this detachment and the local militia, he defeated the forces of the satraps of Syria and Cilicia, Beles and Mazdea, who tried to suppress the uprising [25] .
In Cyprus, the kings of the nine cities to which the whole island belonged, expelled the Persians and declared their kingdoms independent. The organization of the expedition to Cyprus was entrusted to the satrap of Caria Hydria . He collected 8 thousand mercenaries and a fleet of 40 Trier, putting at the head of the Athenian strategist Fokyon and King Evagor , who was expelled from Salamis. Having landed in 344 BC. e. in Cyprus, they laid siege to Salamis - the largest city and center of the rebels - from land and sea. Since the island had not been invaded for more than 30 years, since the time of the Cyprus war , and there it was possible to count on rich booty, the army of Phocion soon doubled at the expense of mercenaries who arrived from different places of Syria and Cilicia [26] .
To the beginning of 343 BC. e. almost all of Cyprus was conquered, and the position of the besieged Salamis became hopeless. Tsar Pnitagoras surrendered the city, submitting to Artaxerxes, and was left in power [27] .
In 343 BC e. The Persian king at the head of a huge army joined Phenicia. According to the greatly exaggerated report of Diodorus, this army numbered 300 thousand people, including 30 thousand horsemen. The fleet consisted of 300 ships and 500 transports [28] . A collection of mercenaries was organized. Thebes again put up a thousand hoplites under the command of Lacrates, Argos sent three thousand, at the insistent request of the king, command was entrusted to the strategist Nicostrath, who was distinguished by rare physical strength. In battle, he wore the lion's skin and wielded a cudgel, imitating Hercules. 6 thousand hoplites provided the cities of Asia Minor, so the king had 10 thousand Greek mercenaries at his disposal [29] .
Taking Sidon
The Persian army approached Sidon. The big and rich city was well prepared for defense: in addition to high walls, it was surrounded by a triple deep moat, large stocks of weapons and missiles were created, and many well-trained militiamen were trained. The fleet consisted of more than one hundred triremes and penter [30] .
All these preparations went to ashes. King Tennes, having learned about the power of the Persian army and not hoping for victory, decided to save his life by betrayal. He drew the Mentor to his side, and then spoke out of the city, accompanied by one hundred prominent citizens and five hundred warriors, ostensibly for consultation with the allies. Instead, he handed his companions into the hands of Artaxerxes, who interrupted everyone. After this, the Mentor mercenaries let Persian troops into the city. The inhabitants of Sidon, who had previously burned their ships, so that no one could escape from the city, leaving the rest of the defenders, became victims of Artaxerxes, who replaced the absence of military and political talents with bestial cruelty. This time he decided to roughly punish the Sidonians in order to intimidate other rebellious cities [31] .
In Sidon began a ruthless massacre. Many residents locked themselves in their homes and burned themselves with their families. Those who tried to escape from the city were seized by the Persians and thrown into the fire from the city walls. Diodorus writes that 40 thousand people became victims of slaughter and fire [32] [33] . The king’s fire left for the city for a lot of money, since in addition to the ruins there were frozen pools of melted gold and silver, probably similar to the famous Corinthian bronze , which arose two hundred years under similar circumstances.
Tennesse after this was also put to death, “since there was no longer any use for him” [35] .
The rest of the Phoenician cities surrendered, and the region was merged into one satrapy with Cilicia . The Jews who joined the uprising were also punished, and part of their Persians were resettled in Hyrcania , where he lived as early as the 5th century. n e. [33]
Conquest of Egypt
Now came the turn of Egypt. In winter 343 BC e. the Persians marched. Pharaoh Nectaneb II was well prepared for defense. He possessed 20 thousand Greek mercenaries, the same number of Libyans , as well as 60 thousand Egyptian soldiers. The eastern approaches to the Delta were strengthened, as well as the mouths of all the Nile sleeves. A huge number of river vessels adapted for war were prepared [36] .
The Egyptian defense plan was to cover the most important areas with a network of fortresses with strong garrisons, Nectaneb himself with a field army of 30 thousand Egyptians and 5 thousand Greeks occupied the second line of defense, and half of the Libyans made up a mobile reserve intended for transfer to the most threatened areas. According to Diodorus, this quite reasonable plan could not be implemented due to the self-confidence of Nektaneba in combination with inexperience in military affairs. In the previous war, strategists Diophant and Lamia won the victory for him, and now the king wanted to achieve success and did not want to share command with anyone [37] .
In the frontier fortress of Pelusia stood five thousand Greeks under the command of the Spartan Philophron. The Persian army approached the Egyptian fortifications weakened, because, because of ignorance of the locality, the Persians fell into a large swamp, where part of the army died. Thebans tried alone to take Pelusy. The Greek garrison of the fortress made a sally and entered into a fierce battle that lasted until the night [38] .
Not having achieved quick success, the king the next day divided his Greeks into three detachments under the command of Greek strategists, who were supervised by a single dedicated King Persian with part of the Persian troops. He himself, with the rest, made a reserve. For the siege of Pelusius, the first detachment of the Theban of Lacrates was left. The mentor, who had transferred with his people to the service of the Persians, commanded the third detachment, together with the eunuch Bagoy [39] . Commanded by the second detachment Nikostrat with five thousand selected soldiers and 80 triremes had to make a detour and break through to one of the arms of the Nile. He accomplished this task with the help of guides from local residents whose families were taken hostage. Egyptian mercenaries discovered the Nikostrat camp and attacked 7,000 people under the command of strategist Kliniy. In a stubborn battle, the soldiers of Nikostrat defeated, killing Klinia and killing five thousand of his fighters [40] .
Upon learning of this defeat, Nectaneb was frightened that the entire Persian army would cross the Nile after the Nicostrat, and instead of coming up with large forces and dropping the enemy to the river, he took the army for the defense of Memphis [41] . This mistake decided the outcome of the war. The fortresses were left without support, and the Pelusia garrison, which had previously successfully repelled enemy attacks, learned of the Egyptian retreat, surrendered the fortress, on condition of free exit with the property that could be carried away, and the right to return to Greece [42] .
The mentor, who commanded the third corps, captured Bubastis and many other cities "using simple military tricks." Since everywhere there were mixed garrisons from the Greeks and Egyptians, he spread a rumor everywhere that those who surrendered to the king would be spared, while those who resist would suffer the fate of the Sidonians. The calculation was based on the fact that the locals hated the Greeks and, of course, knew about their treachery in Sidon. This plan was fully justified. Dissension began in the garrisons, and they began to lay down arms in earnest. [43]
Nectaneb, seeing that the cities surrendered one after another, did not dare to continue the struggle, and taking with him most of the royal treasures, he fled to Nubia [44] .
Having conquered the country, Artaxerxes razed the walls of the most important cities, plundered the temples, taking out a huge amount of gold and silver from Egypt. He even took away the temple books, which then the eunuch Bagoy, who became the royal favorite, sold him back to the priests for big money [44] .
Plutarch and Claudius Elian quoted an anecdote that the king not only robbed the temples, but also killed the apis , cut it into pieces, and put an ass in its place. A more "cool" version claims that he not only killed the sacred bull, but roasted him and ate him in the company of his entourage. The reality of such blasphemy raises reasonable doubts among researchers [45] .
Thanks to the intercession of Mentor, whose authority in the eyes of the Persian king became indisputable, the mercenaries who fought for the Egyptians were not punished and were able to return home, which the Athenians later honored Mentor with a special decree (327/326 BC), the text of which preserved [46] .
Summary
The conquest of Egypt was a major victory for the Persians, but their power lasted only ten years (except for the possible rule of the mysterious king Hababash in about 338-336 BC), and the Achaemenid Empire itself remained only 12 years old. The whole campaign was won by Greek mercenaries, without whom not a single serious war, even in the Middle East, could have done for a long time. In essence, some Greeks waged war in Egypt against others. Very soon, the peoples of the East had to find out what would be stronger: Greek weapons or Persian gold.
Notes
- ↑ Dandamaev, p. 241
- ↑ Perepyolkin, s. 455
- ↑ Rung, s. 344
- ↑ Diodorus, XV, 29, 3-4
- ↑ 1 2 Diodorus, XV, 41, 3
- ↑ 1 2 Cornelius Nepos. Xi. Ifikrat 2, 4
- ↑ Marinovich, p. 104
- ↑ Diodorus, XV, 41, 2
- ↑ Diodorus, XV, 42
- ↑ Diodorus, XV, 43, 1-3
- ↑ Diodorus, XV, 43, 4-6
- ↑ Marinovich, p. 105
- ↑ 1 2 Diodorus, XV, 92, 2
- ↑ Marinovich, p. 107
- ↑ Plutarch. Agesilaus, 36
- ↑ Perepyolkin, s. 456–457
- ↑ Borukhovich. Agesilaus in Egypt, p. 29
- ↑ 1 2 Diodorus, XV, 92, 3-4
- ↑ 1 2 Plutarch. Agesilaus, 37
- ↑ Diodorus, XV, 92, 5
- ↑ Xenophon. Agesilaus, II, 30
- ↑ Borukhovich. Agesilaus in Egypt, p. 34
- ↑ Rung, s. 389
- ↑ Borukhovich. Athens, Persia and Egypt ... with. 7
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 42, 1-2
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 42, 3—9
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 46, 1-2
- ↑ Dandamaev, p. 250
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 44, 2-4
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 44, 5-6
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 45, 1-7
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 45, 4-5
- ↑ 1 2 Dandamaev, p. 251
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 45, 5-6
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 45, 4
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 47, 6
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 48, 3
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 46, 5—9
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 47, 1-3
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 48, 3-5
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 48, 6
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 49, 1—6
- ↑ Diodorus, XVI, 49, 7–8
- ↑ 1 2 Diodorus, XVI, 51, 1
- ↑ Dandamaev, 253
- ↑ Rung, s. 390
Literature
- Borukhovich V. G. Agesilaus in Egypt // Ancient World and Archeology. Issue 7. Saratov, 1990
- Borukhovich VG Athens, Persia, and Egypt in the period from the Allied War to the conquest of Egypt by Artaxerxes III in 343 BC. er // The ancient world and archeology. Issue 8. Saratov, 1990.
- Dandamaev M.A. Political history of the Achaemenid state. - M .: Science, 1985-319 with.
- Marinovich L.P. Greek mercenary IV. BC e. and the crisis of the policy. - M .: Science, 1975
- Perepyolkin Yu. Ya. History of Ancient Egypt. - SPb .: “Summer Garden” - Neva Magazine, 2000. - 560 p. - ISBN 5-89740-011-3
- Rung E. V. Greece and the Achaemenid Power: A History of Diplomatic Relations in the 6th — 4th Centuries BC e. - SPb .: Faculty of Philology and Arts, St. Petersburg State University, 2008. - 484 p. - ISBN 978-5-8465-0851-4