Single Stage Photo Process

The first patent for a camera suitable for instant photography was obtained in 1923 by Samuel Schlafrock ^[4] . The device was a cumbersome combination of a shooting camera and a portable darkroom, only slightly reducing the time to get the finished negative . The solution to the problem was photographic materials of complex design with integrated photographic reagents and the ability to immediately get positive . Their development was started by Agfa in the late 1930s, but the mass production was established by Polaroid only in November 1948, simultaneously with the advent of the Polaroid Land 95 camera ^{[5] [6]} . A patent for a photo process with image transfer was registered by the company's founder Edwin Land in 1947 ^{[7] [8]} . In the future, the name of the company Polaroid, which had almost exclusive rights to produce photographic materials of a single-stage photographic process, became synonymous with instant photography. In the USSR , attempts were made to produce similar Moment photo sets for the Moment (1952-1954) and Photon (1969-1976) cameras. But these cameras were produced in extremely small quantities. ^{[9] [10]} . A single-stage process was more widely used in the Soviet Union for accelerated processing of traditional photographic materials in a portable diffusion laboratory (PDF) ^[11] . This technology was used for scientific research in the conditions of expeditions, and kits did not enter the free market.

The first single-stage black-and-white photo sets consisted of two rolls: photosensitive negative photographic material and receiving paper with an adsorbing layer containing catalytically active development nuclei ^[12] . In the interframe gaps of the photosensitive roll, paper containers with developing-fixing paste were mounted ^[13] . After shooting, the photographic material and the receiving paper are pressed against each other and moved between special rollers into the development chamber. During transportation, the rollers destroy the capsule with paste, which is evenly distributed on the surface of the emulsion , restoring metallic silver in the exposed areas ^[14] . The silver halide of the unlit areas of the negative is dissolved by the paste and transferred to the pressed receiving layer of paper, which contains crystals of metallic silver. As a result of the interaction of silver with the transferred halide, the latter is restored, forming a positive image. At the end of the process, which takes at room temperature from several seconds to a minute, the negative is separated from the finished positive. Saving the negative requires stopping the manifestation and fixing, but allows you to use it for traditional photo printing in the future. Moreover, the resolution of the negative is much higher than instant positive due to lateral diffusion during transfer ^[15] .

Photographic materials of the single-stage color process “Polacolor” ( Eng. Polacolor ) were developed later - in 1962 ^[16] . They had a more complex multilayer structure containing three layers of emulsion sensitive to the main colors : red, green and blue, as well as layers with diffusing dyes of complementary colors . As a result of the development, the dyes contained in the exposed areas lose their ability to diffuse and are retained in the emulsion of the negative. In contrast, dyes in unexposed image details are transferred to the receiving paper, forming a positive image with the original colors of the subject ^{[17] [13]} . Some varieties of color single-stage photographic materials, such as "Polavision" and "Polachrome" ( Eng. Polavision, Polachrome ), had not a multilayer, but a mosaic structure with microscopic sections of the emulsion that are sensitive to primary colors ^[14] . The color diffusion process allows you to get only positive in a single copy ^{[* 1]} .

The widespread use of amateur snapshots began after 1972 with the invention by Polaroid of the so-called “integral” sets of the “SX-70” series, with integral layers in a common paper case that did not require any manipulation after shooting ^[13] . Such photographic material actually contains a transparent color negative film facing the lens, and receiving paper located below it: more than 14 layers in total ^{[18] [19]} . The developing-fixing paste is also contained in the capsule, which is destroyed by the rollers pushing the image out of the camera. At the same time, the manifestation occurs in the light due to the titanium dioxide contained in the paste, which protects the negative layers from exposure ^[20] .

In 1976, Kodak developed an alternative version of integrated photo sets, which differed in that they were exposed on the back side of the resulting image. This made it possible to exclude the reversing mirror used in Polaroid cameras of these series to obtain a direct image. In addition, Kodak technology simplified the arrangement of photographic material compared to Polaroid, which required a protective layer that changes its transparency twice during development. The absence of a built-in battery in each set made the photo material cheaper, and the unnecessary use of additional layers scattering light increased the sharpness of photos on Kodak sets. In April of the same year, Polaroid filed a lawsuit for the violation of several patents, the result of which was a lawsuit that lasted almost 10 years ^[1] . A counterclaim for violation of antitrust laws could not protect Kodak from defeat ^[5] . In 1986, he was forced to stop production of his kits, and five years later he paid compensation in the amount of $ 925 million ^{[21] [22]} .

During the litigation, a third player appeared on the market - Fujifilm , which in 1981 launched the production of integrated photo materials called Fotorama, compatible with Kodak cameras. The Japanese were able to avoid the lawsuit thanks to an agreement to grant Polaroid rights to issue VHS video cassettes and floppy disks , as well as to limit the market for photo sets ^[5] . In 1999, the last two technologies were implemented: the Fujifilm Instax, which is still in use, and the Polaroid I-Zone, based on cassettes of the Pocket Film integrated kits with a 24 × 36 millimeter image format. For the latter, miniature cameras of the simplest design were produced.

During the existence of a single-stage diffusion photoprocess, a huge number of varieties of photographic materials of this type have been created. All of their diversity, produced by different manufacturers, is classified primarily by design and format, which are reflected in the series number, as well as by types that differ from each other in sensitization , photosensitivity , development time and the nature of the resulting image: black and white or color photographs transparencies . In addition, some types, in addition to ready-made positive, allow you to get a negative suitable for photo printing. Others use opaque photo paper as negative material or have an integral design. Photographic materials of one series can include several dozen different types. Depending on the type of camera and photographic material, the same series may produce different frame sizes, in some cases using it incompletely.

The Polaroid Roller Kits, which first appeared in 1948, consisted of two rolls of negative material and receiving paper. All varieties, the manifestation of which took place inside the camera - series 20 , 30 and 40 - were produced until 1992. Roller films of different series differed in the frame format, which was 2.5 × 3.25 inches for the 20th and 30th series, and 3.25 × 4.25 inches for the 40th. The Soviet “Moment” photo set had a similar device and corresponded to the American 40th series, designed for 8 frames of 7.2 × 9.5 centimeters ^[23] . Photomaterials with various types of emulsions in most cases had a designation, the first digit of which reflected the series. For example, Tip-40 possessed orthochromatic sensitization and sensitivity of 100 ASA, giving an image of sepia color, while Tip-42 of the same 40th series provided panchromatic sensitization and sensitivity of 200 ASA with a neutral tone. Tip-46 photographic material made it possible to obtain black and white transparencies on a panchromatic emulsion 800 ASA. Type-410 was produced for recording waveforms and had a highly sensitive panchromatic emulsion of 10,000 ASA ^[24] . Type-48 became one of the first color photo sets of the 40th series.

Sheet sets (“planfilm”) of the 50th series with a frame size of 4 × 5 inches appeared in 1958 and also consisted of two sheets of negative film and receiving paper with reagent capsules packed in a paper envelope ^[25] . Each envelope was charged into a camera or a special Polaroid cassette, equipped with rollers to start the development process. In 1963, Polaroid released a 100- series film pack ^{[* 2]} , consisting of eight 3.25 × 4.25-inch sheets that were exposed from a single cartridge, and in 1973, sheet sets of the 800th series of the large 8 × 10 format became available inches ^{[26] [25]} . The black and white “Type-612” of the hundredth series had one of the highest photosensitivity values ​​of 20,000 ASA ^[24] . Later, the production of the filmpack of the 550th series of 4 × 5-inch format and the 80th with an almost square frame of 8.3 × 8.6 centimeters was launched. Adapters for 800 series kits, unlike the other backdrops for Polaroid sheet materials, were not equipped with development rollers, which takes place in a separate processor.

Similar photographs have been produced by Kodak under the Polaroid license since 1963 ^[1] . In 1969, the license was revoked and after that Kodak was developing its own single-stage photo sets. Work was discontinued with the advent of the Polaroid SX-70 Series Integrated Kits in 1972. The latter were issued in the form of a cartridge for 10 flat cards with a square frame of 7.9 × 7.9 centimeters ^{[* 3]} . Immediately after shooting, a special electric drive of the camera pushed the image between the two rollers, starting the processing process. The cassette contained a miniature battery to power all camera circuits and the flash . In the early 1980s, photographic materials called “Time Zero” appeared with a shorter development time. The SX-70 series occupies a special place in the series of Polaroid photo materials due to the possibility of image transformation by mechanical action during the transfer of dyes ^[27] . The relatively thick gelatin- based emulsion remained ductile for several minutes, allowing for “ impressionist ” effects when heated and pressured to various sites. The technique gained popularity among photographers under the name "Polaroid Manipulation" ^[28] .

The 600- series photo sets that replaced the SX-70 had a higher light sensitivity of 600 ASA, but were supplied with a different type of emulsion that limited the possibilities of manipulation ^{[24] [* 4]} . In addition, the 600th series was incompatible with the previous one due to the small protrusions on the cassette and, mainly, the inability to change the exposure meter settings of old cameras tuned to a sensitivity of 150 ASA. However, the owners found ways to use the popular SX-70 cameras, cutting off the protrusions of the cassettes and "tricking" the exposure meter with an external sensor with a neutral light filter on the lens. In addition to the SX-70 series, 600 and their professional versions, Autofilm 330 series integrated kits were produced for use with Polaroid CB-33 cassettes in cameras with a 3x4 inch frame format ^[24] .

Kodak integrated sets were produced from 1976 until 1986, when their production was stopped by decision of the Boston District Court ^[29] . This type of photographic material is incompatible with the Polaroid SX-70 and 600 series. The main difference is the use of fundamentally new direct positive photoemulsions that produce an image without an intermediate negative ^[30] . Kodamatic cameras had an original design with two turning mirrors and gave an image of 68 × 91 millimeters in size ^[31] . Kodak produced two series of photographic materials: PR10 with a photosensitivity of 150 ASA, and an advanced PR144 with minor differences in cassettes and doubled sensitivity. Fuji Fotorama kits , which had a similar design, were compatible with Kodak cameras, giving a frame size of 69 × 91 millimeters in the “native” cameras. In the mid-1980s, the Fotorama System 800 series was launched with a sensitivity of 800 ASA, which lost compatibility with Kodak due to the design of the cassette. Market research on integrated photo kits showed that most users are unhappy with the square frame format, preferring a rectangular one like Kodak and Fuji. This prompted Polaroid to create a new series of instant cassettes: Spectra and Captiva . New standards for photographic characteristics and processing technology repeated the 600th series, but differed in format, giving a rectangular frame of 73 × 92 and 73 × 54 mm ^[24] . In 1999, Fuji launched a similar project called “Instax,” which produced two cameras and instant cartridges of two varieties: “Wide” and “Mini” with a frame of 60 × 99 and 62 × 46 millimeters. After the cessation of production of Polaroid photographic materials in 2008, these products began to be exported outside of Japan. In addition to one-piece kits, Fujifilm produced photo materials similar to the Polaroid series 50, 100 and 550. One of the most popular varieties was the Fuji FP-100C color filmpack ^[3] . In 2013, the cessation of production of these materials was announced, with the exception of several types of the 100th series.

In 1978, sets with an 8 mm film “Polavision” entered the market. The kit was an integral cassette with a simple lens and a rotating prism of optical alignment ^[32] . Development and viewing took place in a special film projector , where the cassette was inserted. The technology used the raster structure of the emulsion, which was close to the lenticular technology of color cinema of the 1930s. Due to the poor image quality and the appearance of household video cameras , Polavision was not a commercial success, but its principle was used in 1983 in a single-stage process to produce 35 mm Polachrome slides . The kit was delivered in the form of type-135 film in a standard cassette and a container with reagents, which, after shooting, were charged into the simplest AutoProcessor developing device. The reagents were distributed between the photographic material and the developing tape passing through a system of rollers rotated by the handle. The development could be carried out even in the light, but the image quality was significantly inferior to conventional photographic films due to the raster structure. In addition to the 35-mm color films “Polakhrom”, similar black-and-white “Polapan”, “Polagraf” and “Polablyu” ( English Polapan, Polagraph, Polablue ) without raster were produced . The latter gave a monochrome image of blue color ^[24] .

Simultaneously with the beginning of the release of photographic materials of the one-step process, a new class of photographic equipment designed for instant photography appeared. For most of the history of instant photography, cameras for it were manufactured by Polaroid and bore the trademark “Land Camera”, meaning the design developed by Edwin Land ^[8] . Such cameras differed from conventional cameras in the construction of a tape drive designed to transport two rolls simultaneously, and containing special rollers. The latter serve to break the capsules with developing-fixing paste and its even distribution between the negative and the receiving paper. Chambers of a single-stage process were built, as a rule, according to the scheme of a rangefinder camera with a central shutter in a non-replaceable lens. The low resolution of single-stage sets dictated the simplified design of optics and other camera devices, the first models of which were scaled , and many of the subsequent ones were the simplest . The most primitive is the Polaroid Swinger, which sold for only $ 20 ^[21] . In addition to Polaroid, such cameras were produced by Keystone, Minolta and Konica . Kodak and Fujifilm also launched their own production of photo camera kits. Fuji Instax cameras for Wide instant cartridges are currently available for sale.

The spread of technology made it possible to shoot on sets not only with specialized cameras, but also system ones , for which adapters (also “backs” or “holders”) appeared, equipped with the same tape drive and devices ^[2] . Each series of photo sets corresponded to a certain type of cassette, produced for sharing. Such adapters were produced not only for large-format and medium-format cameras, but also for professional small-format cameras with a removable back cover ^{[5] [15] [33]} . With the advent of single-stage sheet kits and film cameras, the production of specialized cameras of these standards, as well as backs of the corresponding types, have begun.

•  

  Polaroid Highlander camera of one of the first 80A models

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  Professional camera
  "Polaroid Land 185"

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  Polaroid Adapters for Large Format Cameras

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  Polaroid camera for shooting documents

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  Tektronix camera for shooting from the oscilloscope screen

•  

  Folding SLR camera
  "Polaroid SX-70"

In addition, there are new devices designed to perform special tasks, such as photographs on documents, medical photography and forensic photography. From the other types of cameras, these differed in the arrangement of lenses, viewfinders and other features. So, cameras for shooting documents were equipped with several lenses, allowing you to get several identical photo cards on one sheet. Dental cameras were not equipped with a viewfinder, since the frame was limited to a metal frame pressed to the patient's face. At the same time, focusing was also not required, since the lens is rigidly focused on the distance set by the fence. A similar device had cameras for shooting from the screen of an oscilloscope or a TV .

With the advent of integrated sets of the SX-70 and 600 series, the production of cameras of the corresponding models has begun. From cameras designed for roll and sheet photo materials, these differed in the cassette part, designed to eject the finished image passing between the developing rollers. The differences in Kodak technology made it possible to do without an electric drive in cheap models, pushing the image out with a rotating handle ^[34] . Another new design is the viewfinder: the Polaroid SX-70 is built according to the original scheme of a single-lens reflex camera ^{[31] [35] [36]} .

The main feature of instant photography is the coincidence of the final image size with the size of the frame window. This predetermined the folding design of specialized cameras, rather bulky in working condition. In addition, Polaroid cameras are equipped with long focal length lenses (116 millimeters for the Polaroid SX-70 series) requiring precise focusing. The Polaroid SX-70 SONAR in 1978 became the first SLR camera equipped with active autofocus with an ultrasonic range finder ^[37] . In addition, single-stage photographic materials have a small photographic breadth and do not allow exposure errors. As a result, automatic exposure control appeared in the Polaroid Model 900 before the majority of traditional ones.

Attempts to produce cameras of a single-stage process were made several times in the USSR: in 1952 and in the early 1970s ^[38] . The first Moment camera, released at GOMZ in the amount of 9000 pieces, had technical solutions and a folding design similar to the American Polaroid Land 95 prototype ^{[39] [40]} . The Photon family, developed at the Krasnogorsk Mechanical Plant, provided for the extension of the lens, in the transport position, recessed into the housing ^[10] .

Both lines were designed for Soviet-made photographic material corresponding to the 40th series of Polaroid kits. However, the chemical industry was not able to establish the production of single-stage materials for this equipment, and cameras were not imported. During the perestroika, the joint venture Svetozor, created on the initiative of Evgeny Velikhov , vice president of the USSR Academy of Sciences , set up production of 635CL cameras under the license of Polaroid ^{[41] [42]} . 600-series integrated kits for manufactured cameras were imported from Europe ^[9] .

Currently Instax single-stage process cameras are only available from Fujifilm . Fuji and Impossible filmpack format kits are used with Polaroid backs for medium and large format film cameras.

The return of the popularity of film amateur photography in the late 2000s also affected the technology of a single-stage process, which is widely used including in modern Lomography . Home-made combinations of Holga cameras and attached backs have appeared, allowing you to shoot on sets of the 80th and 100th series. In this case, the back from the old Polaroid camera is often used. This combination was called "Holgaroid" ^{[43] [44]} . The unique nature of the image provided by such cameras, combined with a peculiar color rendition of instant photography, allows you to get pictures of an unusual appearance. Backs of Fuji Instax format were commercially available for similar Diana cameras ^[45] .

In 2008, Polaroid announced the final bankruptcy and discontinuation of all photographic materials of the single-stage photographic process due to a sharp drop in sales as a result of the proliferation of digital cameras ^[46] . Currently (as of January 2014), the PoGo Instant Digital Camera, a digital camera with a built-in printer , is being produced under the Polaroid brand name. ^[1]This design is also protected by Land's patent for the first time proposing to combine these devices. Thanks to the departure of the main competitor, Fujifilm was able to increase the export of its kits, most of which coincide in format with Polaroid products. However, the decrease in speed affected the Japanese manufacturers of photographic materials, which stopped the production of most varieties of instant kits. Currently, only Instant Instax Wide standard cassettes remain in production.

В марте 2010 года голландская компания «Impossible Project» объявила о планах по возобновлению выпуска фотоматериалов одноступенного фотопроцесса в помещениях и на оборудовании, принадлежавших Polaroid ^{[47] [48]} . Запущено производство комплектов фотоматериалов «PX-100» и «PX-600», соответствующих сериям «SX-70» и 600 ^{[49] [50]} . Одновременно налажен выпуск крупноформатных комплектов 8×10 дюймов ^[51] . Американская компания «New 55 film» также находится в стадии запуска производства собственной версии фотоматериала «тип-55» популярной 50-й серии ^[52] . Ключевой особенностью последнего является возможность получения как позитива, так и высококачественного негатива, пригодного для оптической фотопечати в больших форматах ^{[53] [54]} . Кроме того, негатив удобен в качестве промежуточного носителя в различных творческих фотопроцессах, таких как цианотипия .

Появление интегральных фотокомплектов полностью изменило западную любительскую фотографию, которая стала по-настоящему массовой. К середине 1970-х годов более 20 % любительских фотоотпечатков в США были моментальными ^[55] . Дарить моментальные снимки гостям вечеринок и праздников стало американской традицией ^{[5] [21]} . Фотографии, которые стали называть «поляроидными», проникли во все сферы быта и бизнеса, став знаковым предметом. Это не замедлило отразиться на эстетике художественной фотографии и других изобразительных искусств , начавших эксплуатировать визуальные особенности моментальной фотографии. Фотокомплекты стали использовать известные фотохудожники, такие как Уолкер Эванс , Ансел Адамс , Хельмут Ньютон и другие ^[1] . Последний впоследствии выпустил фотоальбом, составленный из тестовых снимков, сделанных на фотокомплекты перед съёмкой на плёнку ^[56] . Энди Уорхол принёс поляроидным снимкам скандальную известность, фотографируя своих гостей в стиле «ню» ^[5] . Он же создал галерею портретов знаменитостей в технике шелкографии , промежуточным носителем для которых служили снимки, сделанные на интегральных комплектах ^[57] . Компания Polaroid специально покупала фотоработы мастеров, созданные при помощи одноступенного процесса, впоследствии составив знаменитую коллекцию «Polaroid Photography Collection». Важным обстоятельством является уникальность большинства фотографий, полученных на фотоматериалах данного типа, что повышает ценность произведений. После банкротства компании коллекция была распродана на аукционах за большие суммы ^[58] . Одним из рекордсменов стала работа Ансела Адамса «Конец снежной бури, национальный парк Йосемити», проданная за 722 с половиной тысячи долларов ^[59] .

Когда обнаружилась возможность манипуляции изображением при помощи механического воздействия на фотокомплект во время переноса красителей ( англ. Polaroid Manipulation ) или последующего переноса эмульсии ( англ. Emulsion Lift ), появились новые техники творческой фотографии , используемые в том числе в современной ломографии . На сегодняшний день известно несколько способов трансформации изображения Polaroid, особенно эффективных на интегральных комплектах серии «SX-70 Time Zero» с длительным временем затвердевания эмульсии ^[27] . Волна современной моды на плёночную фотографию не прошла мимо одноступенного процесса, не требующего оснащённой фотолаборатории и допускающего уникальные возможности трансформации изображения без компьютера . Поэтому возобновление производства фотоматериалов, встреченное многими с энтузиазмом, получило коммерческий успех. Polaroid оставил свой след и в цифровой фотографии: квадратная форма снимков популярного мобильного приложения Instagram заимствована у интегральных фотокомплектов серий «SX-70» и 600, подчёркивая возможность мгновенного получения и публикации фотографий ^{[* 5]} . Некоторые цифровые фильтры приложения позволяют имитировать характер цветопередачи, свойственный одноступенному фотопроцессу ^{[43] [60]} . Компания Socialmatic готовит к выпуску мультимедийную камеру Polaroid, дизайн которой копирует вид иконки приложения Instagram, в свою очередь позаимствовавшей радужную полосу у фотоаппаратов «One Step» 600-й серии ^[61] . Устройство на базе операционной системы Android совмещает в одном корпусе две камеры и бесчернильный принтер, позволяя публиковать фотографии в одноимённой сети и мгновенно их распечатывать.

• Фотокабина
• Обращаемые фотоматериалы
• Polaroid

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• Рекламный ролик фотоаппарата Kodak одноступенного процесса (англ.) . YouTube (1980). Дата обращения 12 марта 2014.

• Указание по применению фотокомплекта «Момент» (рус.) . Инструкция . Фабрика фотобумаг №4. Дата обращения 9 марта 2014.