The Anglo-French War (1294-1298)

Having completed the conquest of Wales, Edward I was able to tidy up his continental possessions. In 1286 he arrived in Guyenne , where he stayed for more than three years, until 1289. In 1286 he brought Philip IV a homage and received back the lands promised even by Louis IX. It seemed that the territorial issue was settled, and there was no reason for the conflict. However, an unexpected problem arose: trade rivalry between the sailors of Bayonne and the ports of Normandy.

Active and adventurous, Bayonets crowded their northern rivals. Seven entrepreneurs organized a company, which in 1279 received a monopoly right to catch a local variety of sardine from Cape St. Matthew (Saint-Mathieu) from the Duke of Breton. This was a very lucrative business, as salted sardine was a staple food for coastal people on fasting days. The Bayonne monopoly hit the interests of local fishermen who expressed violent indignation. In response, the Anglo-Bayonne pirates on August 28, 1289 sacked and burned Le Conquet . Irish pirates launched attacks on merchant caravans from Flanders and Gascony ^[1] .

Edward I, who did not want to quarrel with the French, ordered the justice of Ireland to William de Vesqui not to touch the French merchants and return the captured.

However, during Lent 1292, the usual brawl between sailors led to a real explosion. We don’t know the details enough, because the rumor distorted and strengthened them. According to the complaint of Edward's subjects, there was a quarrel between the sailors - the Bayonet and the Norman at a source near Cape St. Matthew. Everyone wanted to get to him first. A fight ensued in which the Norman was killed or dangerously injured with a knife. His angry comrades boarded the enemy ship and killed the crew ^[2] . In Royan-on-Gironde, another 4 Bayonne ships were hijacked, and the sailors were killed ^[3] .

After some time, the ships of the Normans arrived in Bordeaux for a load of wine. Bordeaux's constable Ithieu of Angouleme, following the policy of the king, called the warring sailors and persuaded them to stop the skirmishes under threat of reprisal. Everyone seemed to calm down. The British and Bayonets began in small groups of 4-5 ships to leave Bordeaux, without worrying about the Normans. Suddenly, 80 Norman ships left the Gironde and moved north along the coast, capturing the ships and destroying the crews. By doing so, they instilled such fear into the subjects of Edward that the English merchants left Bordeaux without completing the loading ^[3] .

Philip IV took an ambiguous position, censuring the words, but in fact encouraging the actions of the Normans. In response, brutal reprisals against the French in Aquitaine, including officials of the French king, began. The Normans, who had been living in Bordeaux and Bourg-on-Garonne for 10 years, were killed in 1292 “only because they spoke French” ^[4] .

In the spring of 1293, barely became aware of the appearance of the Bayonne fleet in the English Channel and the English ships in Bordeaux, the Normans launched 300 ships into the sea to intercept their rivals. The ships were prudently divided into three squadrons: a rearguard that cruised off the island of Batz, guarding the English Channel, a center in the area of ​​St. Matthew, and the vanguard at Penmark .

Seventy British ships, sailing in small groups, were attacked and captured, and teams were killed. The British estimated their losses at 20 thousand pounds. Art. At Lannion, 9 Bayonne ships were burned, twenty others managed to escape from Saint-Malo , only two ships and 60 people were captured by the Normans. These people were brought to the city, where they were brutally dealt with.

One Norman squadron separated to hunt for prizes at sea. The other two, in the amount of 200 ships, continued their journey to Tonne-Charente and Saint-Jean-d'Angeli . They took only half the freight to be more maneuverable when meeting on the way back with the English ships.

The British began to form a squadron at the Five Ports . By order of the king, in January 1293, Stefan de Penchester, constable of Dover, began to assemble a fleet of 57 ships, which the cities were ordered to equip and equip each crew. The fleet under the command of Robert Tipoft, reinforced by several ships from Southampton (there were 60 in total), left Portsmouth on April 24 and headed for the mouth of the Seine , where it defeated a merchant caravan that lost 6 ships.

Then the British stopped at Saint-Mathieu, waiting for the return of the Norman ships. The battle of May 15 ended in the defeat of the Normans, who lost a lot of people and ships. The French do not report the number, and according to the English chronicler Walsingham, the Normans lost 15 thousand people ^[3] .

Having won, the British and Bayonets sacked La Rochelle .

Philip claimed damages. Edward proposed creating a joint commission to investigate or transfer the case to the papal arbitration, but the king of France rejected these proposals, saying that as overlord he had the right to judge his vassals himself ^[5] .

In December 1293, the King of France summoned Edward I, as Duke of Guyenne, to the court of the Paris Parliament . This procedure usually preceded the declaration of war, since in case of refusal, the French declared the confiscation of the duchy and introduced troops into it. Edward tried to settle the matter by making an offer through his brother Edmund Lancaster , who was married to his mother-in-law, Philippe Blanca d'Artois , to introduce royal soldiers to the fortress of Guyenne until the lawsuit was settled ^[6] .

French historians call Edmund Lancaster's proposal hopelessly stupid and wonder how such a hard-pressed politician like Edward I could have made such a mistake ^[7] . If he hoped that Philip would strictly observe feudal law, then he miscalculated greatly. The king of France acted with his usual duplicity: he brought troops into the fortresses, including Bordeaux, and then took and occupied Guyenne. The operation was led by the Connable Raul de Nell . On May 5, 1294, the Paris Parliament announced the confiscation of the duchy for Edward’s violation of the vassal oath. ^[8]

Learning about the actions of Philip, Edward sent the lords and the cities of Guyenne a circular letter, explaining that the French had deceived him, and calling for an uprising.

He himself assembled three squadrons: in the west, Ormond defended the St George Strait with ships from Ireland and Bristol . In the east, 53 ships from Yarmouth under the command of John de Botetour and royal barges covered the mouth of the Thames. At Portsmouth, a five-port squadron under the command of Tipoft and 200 transports of William Leibern sailed to Guyen with a detachment of 500 heavily armed horsemen and 20 thousand infantry (August 1294) ^[9] . For the first time in English history, Botetour and Leyburn were appointed admirals ^[10] .

On July 1, Jean II of Breton was appointed commander of the troops, but in fact the expedition was led by the Seneschal of Aquitaine, John Saint-John, Amanie d'Albre and Robert Taybotot. The Duke of Breton convened his vassals in Ploermel on August 19 to collect the militia, but few people appeared, since the Bretons did not want to fight for England ^[11] .

Detained by the winds at Plymouth and Dartmouth , the British, having plundered the French coast of the English Channel, only moored at Saint-Mathieu on October 10. On October 15, the British landed on the island of Re , where many residents put to death. Their fleet anchored at Boer on the Gironde on November 1. On the 8th they took Bly . Having walked in front of the Connable Raul de Nelay, who was defending Bordeaux, they landed 300 men and 7,000 mercenaries under the command of Jean of Breton at La Reol . The rest of the squadron headed for Bayonne, where its appearance caused an uprising on January 1, 1295, expelling the French and their supporters.

Edward planned to send additional forces to Guyenne in the fall under the command of the Counts of Lancaster and Lincoln, and by Christmas he intended to come to the duchy himself. However, the equipment of the army and navy laid such a burden on his subjects that the not-so-pacified Wales rebelled again, and the king had to postpone the expedition. The heavy campaign in Wales took about a year and caused even greater costs ^[12] .

Realizing that he alone could not cope with the French, Edward began an active search for allies. In the autumn of 1294 - in the spring of 1295, treaties were concluded with the German king Adolf Nassausky (12.10.1294), the archbishop of Cologne, the counts of Holland, Geldern, Brabant and other seniors of Lower Rhine. English diplomats persuaded the union of Bishop Basel and Count of Savoy. The king of Castile also offered support. ^[13]

The German king, who was in need of money, agreed to declare war on France in exchange for a subsidy of 100 thousand marks ^[10] . In practice, Adolf limited himself to threats, sending a letter to Philip in November 1294 complaining about the French seizure of imperial territories and declaring that he would come out against France with all his forces. Philip sent him a message that consisted of only two words: Trop Allemand (too German) ^[14] .

Having exchanged pleasantries, he nevertheless entered into negotiations with the German, hoping to tear him from an alliance with the British by means of bribery. What succeeded. He also managed to corrupt the Duke of Brabant, Earl of Savoy and other lords; only Jean de Chalon and Count de Bar (son-in-law of the English king) remained loyal to Edward ^[15] .

Philip, in turn, also began to look for allies. In Anagni, on June 23, 1295, a secret agreement was concluded with Aragon, who promised to provide 40 galleys and 7200 people under the command of the famous Aragonese admiral Roger de Loria . The king of France reprimanded himself half of the prey taken, only the English king, if he can be captured, the Aragonese demanded for themselves ^[16] .

Edward also tried to lure the famous Aragonese to his side, sending his representative to him on April 27, 1295. At the same time, he tried to negotiate with King Jaime to hire the Almogavars ^[17] .

On October 21, an agreement was signed in Paris with Norway, which promised to provide 200 galleys and 100 large naves, with 50 thousand people. Although Eirik II ratified the treaty in 1296 in Bergen , and his brother Duke Hakon married Isabella, Countess de Rouigni, the deal did not take place, as Norway entered the war with the then mistress of the northern seas - Denmark ^[18] .

The only alliance that really benefited was the alliance with King of Scotland John Baliol , concluded on October 23, 1295 ^[19] and marked the beginning of a long-lasting anti-English collaboration between the two monarchies ^[20] . Already in November, Baliol began hostile actions against the British, detaining Edward on the island for another year.

Having lost most of the Norman ships, Philip IV decided to use the resources of the Mediterranean, hoping that the galleys there could operate in the ocean. Already at the end of 1292, as part of a joint Franco-Sicilian project in Provence , 20 galleys of a new design were launched, which surprised the Genoese in their size. Financing and supervision of the work was provided by Siena Banking House Bakkozi.

On April 4, 1294, Charles II Lame transferred this squadron to the representative of Philip IV to the Genoese Guillaume Boccus, the vigier of Aigues-Mortes . Accordingly, the king of France had to accept credit obligations to Siena bankers. In Marseilles, Guillaume Boccuse actively built galleys. Since it was too old for command, the squadron (30 galleys, each holding 160 people) was led by his son Guillaume Pierre de Mar, Chatel Aigues-Mortes ^[21] .

The ships left Marseilles on April 1, 1295. Two months later they were off the coast of Normandy and plundered the island of Jersey . In Rouen, they joined another squadron of galleys built by Genoese specialists in the winter of 1293-1294. 1,600 sailors from Aigues-Mortes were sent as the basis for the crews. As a result of the joint efforts of shipbuilders from Northern France, Provence, Genoa and Flanders in Rouen and Arfleur, by the beginning of 1295 50 galleys and 7 galliots were built, taking on board 7-8 thousand Italians and Provencal ^[22] .

Philip turned for help to the Hanseatic . 55 of their ships sailed to France. Edward in January 1295 ordered them to be detained, but achieved nothing. After they were unloaded, the French rented or bought part of these ships to strengthen the fleet ^[23] . Also, 10 Spanish and Portuguese ships approached, Norman ports equipped 223 armed ships. The equipment of such a fleet cost a lot of money, and Philip with the help of extraordinary taxes and requisitions managed to collect 1,579,200 livres. In total, they collected about 350 ships. Command was entrusted to Jean d'Arcourt and Mathieu de Montmorency. ^[24]

Operations in Hyeni

In the winter of 1294–1295, the British captured Boer, La Reol and several other fortresses on the banks of the river. January 1, 1295 they subjugated Bayonne, and soon Sord and Saint-North . The province rebelled and only an approach to the help of Carl Valois with significant reinforcements made it possible to maintain French influence. On March 25, Valois besieged La Reol, where John Saint-John and Jean of Breton defended themselves. A compoundable came up to him from Bordeaux to join, taking along the way after the eight-day siege of Podansak (April 3). His commandant surrendered on terms favorable to the British, but leaving the Gascons captive in the hands of the French. On April 7, Valois ordered the 70 prisoners of the Gascons to be hung in front of La Reole. This sowed discord between the English and the Gascons. The British and Jean Breton decided to leave the fortress under cover of night, but the guards noticed their flight and the Gascons chased, catching up and killing those who did not manage to board the ships. On April 8, the French took the fortress ^{[25] [26]} .

Then the French besieged Saint-North. Hugo de Ver, son of the Earl of Oxford, defended the fortress with great courage. The siege lasted for more than three months, until the illnesses and famines, from which the besieged and besieged suffered, were forced to accept the mediation of Count de Foix. A truce was concluded for two weeks, after which the fortress should have surrendered if it did not receive help from Bayonne. Help did not appear, the fortress was surrendered, and the garrison was released with weapons and property ^[27] . Valois lost 1,500 people near Saint-North. ^[28]

On July 29, he surrendered command to the Comte de Foix and departed for France. A ceasefire was concluded in July, on August 14, Eduard agreed to transfer the case to arbitration for the pope if the French did the same, but on September 30 he accused Philip of duplicity, and on October 9 he again turned to the Gascon lords for support, sending his brother to them. The rebellion in Scotland forced Edward to extend the truce until Christmas ^[28] .

Marine Operations

The squadron of Montmorency headed to Flanders, where it took on board the Flemish troops. On August 1, she landed 15 thousand people in front of Dover . The city was taken and burned. The castle stubbornly defended itself and could not be taken. Having lost 500 people, the attackers returned to the ships. On the way back, the British slightly patted them, after which Montmorency returned to Calais ^[29] . Arkur has achieved even less. With 66 ships, having on board 70 knights, 400 squires, and 1,050 infantrymen, he cruised along the coast of Flanders, intercepting English merchants ^[30] .

The king considered the results of the campaign unsatisfactory, since 138 thousand livres were spent on one payment to the crews, and only a few ships with grain and mackerel were captured. Only southerners won quite a few prizes ^[31] . The unlucky admirals were called to Paris for an explanation, and if Montmorency nevertheless received a new appointment, then Arcourt was put on trial, recalling some past crimes to him.

According to English chroniclers, a squadron of three large naves, two galleys, and several more ships was sent to the shores of Scotland to induce it to fight the British. The French intended to attack Berwick , the last English city in the north, approached him on November 1, but the storm destroyed the ships.

The British tried to take revenge: the Portsmouth squadron went to the shores of Flanders, from where the French left, and captured 15 Spanish ships there. Another, leaving Yarmouth, attacked Cherbourg , having plundered the abbey there, and Kotanten was devastated with such zeal that the inhabitants of Barfleur remembered this well 30 years later ^[32] .

Having failed in naval operations, Philip IV tried to organize a trade blockade of England, for which he negotiated with the commercial partners of the British. The Hanseatic have promised not to import wool and leather from England, Scotland and Ireland. After Philip met with Florence, Count of Holland, this country also joined the blockade. Only Flemish ports on June 1, 1296 were allowed to accept neutral ships with cargo from allied Scotland ^[33] .

Edward ordered the merchants to be redirected to Brabant , which was still an ally, but in March the French sent a squadron from Harfleur, which captured several British ships. On May 31, she returned with five prizes. Replenishing supplies, the ships again went to sea in July with the intention of attacking Yarmouth, getting close to him under the guise of a fishing flotilla. It was not possible to deceive the British: approaching the port, the French stumbled upon the squadron of Admiral Botetura, concentrated there since July 18. I had to limit myself to cruising in the North Sea during the summer and autumn. To minimize losses, Edward ordered the release of merchant ships only under the protection of military convoys; in one of the battles with the British, the French lost the royal nave “Philippe” ^[34] .

A second squadron was anchored at Cherbourg in the event of an English landing. Appointed to command Oton de Torsi on December 23, 1295, Admiral Galley, observed the movements of the English fleet, which was gathering at Plymouth in early 1296. On January 15, the British sailed to Cape Saint-Mathieu. On board was an army under the command of Edmund Lancaster and Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln ^[35] . Having approached Saint-Mathieu, the British wanted to replenish supplies, but the inhabitants refused to help them. Then the Welsh mercenaries looted the monastery, burned the city and everything around in the radius of Leagues, after which they headed to Brest . This city was too tough for them, but they greatly devastated the surroundings ^[36] .

Having reached Guyenne, the British took Lespard on March 22 and attacked Bordeaux on the 24th, but there they met with resistance from two thousand soldiers of the crossbow commander Jean de Bruhl and the captain of the naval army, Udar de Mobyuisson. Having been defeated in battles in the harbor and on the streets of the city, the British went down the Gironde, burned the Langon and Saint-Maker on the road, and left for Bayonne. Philip decided to strengthen the defense of the province by sending troops of Robert II d'Artois and the squadron of Oton de Torsi there. Torsi, having left Cherbourg in April, looted Guernsey , and entering Gironde blocked the fortresses occupied by the enemy. English ships left Bayonne and the French squadron, fearing to take the battle, took refuge in Bordeaux and La Reole ^[37] .

The presence of the English fleet in Bayonne troubled the Basques, who had already lost several merchant ships, and in turn captured several Bayonne ships. Fearing reprisals, the Basque ports of Santander , Laredo , Castro-Urdiales , Vittoria , Bermeo , Getaria , San Sebastian and Fuentrabia formed an ermandada . In May 1296, they interrupted trade with Bayonne, England and Flanders until the end of the war. ^[38]

The British launched an offensive in Hyeni and besieged Dax . The townspeople, supported by Roger-Bernard de Foix and Guy de Clermont, Marshal of France, stubbornly resisted and the British, having lifted the siege, left for Bayonne. Artois arrived after the siege, August 15th. He headed to Belguard Castle. Lancaster moved to the aid of troops under the command of the Seneschal Saint John and Earl of Lincoln. Upon learning of this, Artois, leaving a small detachment in front of the castle, secretly moved with the main forces to meet the British. He managed to catch them by surprise, attacking during the march through the forest, and won a significant victory. The seneschal, Count Mortimer and others were captured. ^[39]

Pacifying Scotland in 1296 (as it seemed to him) and having deposed Baliol, Edward in early 1297 announced his intention to land in the Netherlands in order to become the head of the anti-French coalition. Flanders, whose industrial production depended on imports of English wool, suffered from a trade blockade, and Count Guy de Dampier was tired of enduring the humiliation inflicted upon him by the French king. On March 8, 1297, an Anglo-Flemish alliance was concluded in Bruges ^[40] .

In England, however, the barons' dissatisfaction with the king’s excessive spending and increased tax burden threatened to develop into a riot. This did not allow the king to collect the required number of troops and he sailed to Flanders, having only a few thousand people. In addition, when the ships went to sea, a uniform battle took place between the sailors of the Five Ports and Yarmouth, 25 ships from Yarmouth were burned, and the king barely managed to withdraw from battle three of his large naves with the treasury. On August 23, he landed at Slays with a detachment of Welsh and Irish. ^[40]

However, by the time the English arrived, the Count of Flanders had already been defeated (August 20 at the Battle of Fürn ). Lille and Bruges, on which Edward counted as a base for his operations, surrendered to the French. The king of England and the Earl of Flanders became entrenched in Ghent , on the border of France and the empire, where they vainly awaited the approach of Adolphe of Nassau. The position of the allies was getting worse: William Wallace's uprising began in Scotland, the English barons were on the verge of rebellion, and even on the streets of Ghent, there were clashes between the Welsh mercenaries of Edward, who were trying to rob the population, and the Flemings. On October 9, a ceasefire was signed at Viv-Saint-Bavon ^[41] . In April 1298, Edward returned to England ^[42] .

In Guyenne, most of which was subordinated to the French troops, active hostilities in the first half of 1297 ceased, and in late June Robert II d'Artois was recalled to the Flemish front. The governor of Aquitaine and Gascony was appointed seneschal of Toulouse Guichard de Marciac (or de Massac) ^[43] .

In the summer of 1297, the leadership of the fleet was entrusted to the great admiral of Castile, Genoese Benedetto Zaccaria , one of the best naval commanders of his time, the winner at Meloria . He was appointed chief admiral of the king and made a plan of landing in England, which would allow "to put the country (England) on fire and flame" ^[44] .

Zakkaria believed that 20 jurisdictions ^[45] (at that time there were 16), four galleys and 80 transports would be enough for the landing. Two galleys were supposed to accompany jussie and cover the landing, the other two - to ply between Rouen and the English coast, providing delivery of fodder and food. Each yussie took on board 20 riders with horses, squires and equipment. Altogether, 400 horsemen, 400 ^[46] infantrymen and 4,800 sailors were to participate in the expedition.

The crews of the ships were to consist of selected sailors, who were supposed to pay more: 40 su instead of the usual 35. The ground operation was planned to be carried out in March - July. Sailors at this time were to guard the ships and the landing site. The total cost of a four-month operation was estimated at 64 thousand livres. Also important was secrecy.

Preparations for a large-scale landing operation were carried out in the fall and winter of 1297–1298, but, in view of the cessation of hostilities, it was not carried out ^[47] .

On June 27, 1298, with the mediation of Pope Boniface VIII , a treaty was concluded that ceased hostilities. The parties pledged not to support Flanders and Scotland. The question of Hyeni, however, still had to be settled. In the summer of 1299, Edward married the daughter of Philip III, and his heir was engaged to the daughter of Philip IV Isabella. The truce was extended in 1300 and 1301, and finally, on May 20, 1303, a final peace was concluded in Paris. The French king, who was engaged in the war in Flanders, and preparing the reprisal against the pope, was forced to return to the Edward Duchy of Guyenne, restoring his pre-war position ^{[42] [48]} .

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