“Moon conspiracy” is a conspiracy theory , the central idea of which is the assertion that during the “ moon race ” during the American space program “Apollo” ( 1969 - 1972 ), people were not landed on the moon , and photographs, filming and other documentary materials of the moon expeditions were rigged by the US government .
The theory of the lunar conspiracy has repeatedly been criticized by the Russian Academy of Sciences’s anti-pseudoscience commission [1] [2] , where its supporters are put on a par with the followers of the new Fomenko chronology [2] .
History
It is widely believed that the author of the theory is the American writer Bill Casing , who published the book “We Never Went to the Moon” in 1976 [3] . However, as shown by data from surveys conducted in 1970 and 1976 [4] , the percentage of landings doubting the reality was high even before the release of Keysing’s book. One of the first known publications about the possible falsification of the moon landing was a small story in the December 18, 1969 issue of the newspaper The New York Times, which tells about the recent annual meeting of members of the comic "Society for the Memory of a Man Who Never Flies" held in one from the bars of Chicago, in which one of the representatives of NASA showed other tipsy members of the society photos and videos of ground-based training activity of astronauts, showing a striking resemblance to frames from the moon [5] . And already in 1970 the book of mathematician J. Kraini [6] was published, in which he questioned the landing.
In his book, Bill Casing formulated the main arguments of the theory of the lunar conspiracy:
- The level of technological development of NASA did not allow to send a man to the moon.
- The absence of stars in photographs from the surface of the moon [7] .
- The film of astronauts was supposed to melt from noon temperature on the moon.
- Various optical anomalies in photographs [8] .
- Waving flag in a vacuum [9] .
- Flat surface instead of craters, which were supposed to form as a result of landing of lunar modules from their engines.
Since 1996, interest in the theory of the lunar conspiracy reappeared, including in Russia . For 2018, according to the rating of significance of the Vedomosti newspaper and the Medialogia agency, compiled “based on a database of 43,000 television channels, radio stations, print and online media between January 1, 2011 [...] and December 31, 2017” based on a review of 36 conspiracy theological concepts that have been actively discussed in the media and social networks, the theory of the lunar conspiracy ranks sixth in the index of mention in Russian media [10] .
According to VTsIOM , as of May 2018, 57% of adult residents of Russia believe that there was no landing on the moon. Every fourth respondent (24%) has a different opinion. The share of those who believe in the “lunar conspiracy” is less among people with higher and incomplete higher education (49%) than with secondary (65%) and specialized secondary (63%) [11] . For comparison, in April 2011, in a similar VTsIOM poll saying “Americans did not land on the moon, their landing was removed in the Hollywood pavilions” 40% agreed, 41% of Russians objected [12] .
Supporters Arguments
Proponents of the theory of the “lunar conspiracy” argue, in particular, that there are contradictions in the photographs and films about the moon landing, and some of them go further and even claim that such flights in those years were “technically impossible”. Proponents of the theory argue that the United States falsified for reasons of raising its prestige due to lagging behind the USSR in space achievements in the early 1960s , as well as to distract American citizens from such US war crimes during the Vietnam War as the massacre in Songmi and from Operation Phoenix [13] .
Photo and video materials
Often in photographs they find artifacts that have arisen as a result of the use of photomontage, which are taken as the results of photographing in the studio [16] [17] . But retouching , like other methods of photomontage, is regularly used to improve the quality of images, including images taken by modern satellites [18] .
Argument of supporters: In the photographs and video filming showing how the Apollo 11 crew sets the US flag on the moon, there is a “ripple” on the surface of the canvas. Proponents of the “lunar conspiracy” believe that this ripple arose due to a gust of wind absent in the airless space on the surface of the moon [19] .
Skeptics counterarguments: The movement of the flag could be caused not by the wind, but by the damped vibrations that arose when the flag was set. The flag was fixed on the flagpole and on the horizontal telescopic crossbar, pressed to the pole during transportation. Astronauts failed to push the telescopic tube of the horizontal bar to full length. Because of this, ripples remained on the panel, which created the illusion of a flag flying in the wind. Fluctuations in tissue in a vacuum decay longer due to the lack of air resistance [20] [21] .
In 2009, a NASA spokesman stated that the original video of the broadcast of the first moon landing (45 reels with magnetic tape relating to the Apollo 11 expedition), made on Earth, was lost (although the copies were preserved, as well as the original videos of all the others expeditions) [22] . Despite the loss of the original terrestrial video recording of the broadcast, the original recordings made by the Apollo 11 crew directly on the Moon on a 16-mm film were completely preserved.
Gravity on the Moon
Argument of supporters: One of the arguments of supporters of conspiracy theory is that the astronauts do not jump too high. In their opinion, if the pictures were taken on the Moon, then jumps up to several meters in height would be captured on them, since the gravitational force on the Moon is 6 times lower than on Earth.
Skeptics counterargument: Unlike the astronauts' changed weight , their mass has increased (thanks to the spacesuit and life support system), so the effort needed to jump has not diminished. An additional problem is the boost of the spacesuit: the quick movements necessary to complete a high jump are difficult in the spacesuit, since considerable efforts are spent on overcoming the internal pressure. In addition, during high jumps, the astronaut lost control of his balance, jumping to high altitude with a high probability led to falls. Falling from a height was a potential hazard, as the suit, helmet or satchel of the support system could be damaged.
The danger of such a jump can be represented as follows. As you know, any body can perform translational motion and rotational motion . At the time of the jump, for example, due to the uneven efforts made by the leg muscles, the astronaut's body could receive a rotational moment, as a result of which it would spin in flight, and the consequences of the moon landing after such a jump would be difficult to predict. An astronaut could, for example, fall on the lunar surface with his head. Naturally, astronauts understood this and tried to avoid high jumps [23] .
Booster
Some supporters of conspiracy theory believe that the Saturn-5 rocket was never ready to launch, and they give the following arguments [24] :
- After a partially unsuccessful test launch of the Saturn-5 rocket [25] on April 4, 1968 a manned flight followed, which, according to N. P. Kamanin , was a “pure adventure” [26] from the point of view of safety.
- In 1968, 700 employees of the Marshall Space Research Center in Huntsville (Alabama) , where the Saturn-5 was developed , were dismissed [27] .
- In 1970 , in the midst of the lunar program, the chief designer of the Saturn-5 rocket, Werner von Braun, was relieved of his post as director of the Center and removed from the leadership of rocket science [28] .
- After the end of the lunar program and the launch of the Skylab into orbit, the remaining two rockets were not used for their intended purpose, but were sent to the museum [29] .
- The absence of foreign astronauts who would fly on Saturn 5 [30] or work on a superheavy object launched by this rocket into orbit - the Skylab station [31] .
- The lack of further use of the F-1 engines or its descendants on subsequent missiles, in particular, the use of the Russian RD-180 instead of them on the Atlas-5 rocket [31] .
Also considered is the version of NASA's failures in creating hydrogen-oxygen engines [32] . Proponents of this version claim that the second and third stages of Saturn-5 had kerosene-oxygen engines, as did the first stage [33] . The characteristics of such a rocket would not be enough to launch the Apollo lunar orbit with a full-fledged lunar module, but it would be enough to fly around the moon with a manned spacecraft and dump a greatly reduced model of the lunar module onto the moon [34] .
Skeptics counterargument: F-1 engines from the Saturn-5 launch vehicle can only be used on super-heavy carriers, which Atlas-5 does not belong to, competing with the Russian Proton-M. After completing the lunar program, NASA focused on the Space Shuttle project with solid-fuel and hydrogen-oxygen accelerators, more advanced than the kerosene F-1. When designing Atlas-5, the Russian side proposed, as an alternative, a branch from the Soviet RD-170 - the kerosene RD-180 at an attractive price. Its use was more expedient than creating a new engine from scratch, even taking into account the backlog of F-1.
Moreover, there are videos of all Saturn-5 starts, in which five working F-1s of the first stage are visible.
Unmanned lunar module versions
Some proponents of the theory of the “lunar conspiracy” suggest that under the guise of manned ships unmanned vehicles were delivered to the surface of the moon , which could imitate (for example, by relaying) telemetry and negotiations with the Earth to falsify the current or subsequent expeditions. The same unmanned ship could carry autonomous scientific devices, for example, corner reflectors , which are still used in scientific works on the location of the moon [35] [36] .
Many supporters of such versions proceed from the assumption that the Americans were not able to create a manned lunar module, and therefore were forced to develop an unmanned simulator instead of it to perform (even partial) declared tasks of the lunar program (placing scientific instruments on the moon, spaced a considerable distance from each other friend; the collection and delivery to Earth of a much larger volume of different types of lunar soil with significant areas, etc.).
Some theories suggest that the Saturn-5 rocket had insufficient power to deliver a manned lunar module to the moon, so the heavy manned lunar module was replaced with a lighter unmanned simulator. The exclusion of manned landings from lunar expeditions would neutralize the politically unacceptable, according to some conspiracy theorists, risk of losing two crew members and the risk of losing the lunar race to the Soviet Union [24] [37] . This thesis about the political unacceptability of crew loss is not confirmed by practice: despite all the negative consequences, including political ones, the loss of life did not lead to the closure of large-scale space programs either before or after the Apollo program in the USA or the USSR.
This version requires either the secret creation of a separate unmanned simulator, or the secret continuation of the Surveyor program closed in January 1968 [38] , or a significant modification of the manned lunar module created as part of the lunar program (it is equipped with an automatic soil sampling system and operational mechanisms) scientific instruments). It would also require falsification of all photo and video filming on the moon. When using the Surveyor , the falsification of the brought lunar soil would also be necessary.
Span of Radiation Belts
One of the common arguments of supporters of the theory of the lunar conspiracy is the discovery of the radiation belts of Van Allen, made back in 1958. Streams of solar radiation, fatal to humans, are restrained by the Earth's magnetosphere , and in the Van Allen belts themselves the level of radiation is highest. However, flying through radiation belts is not dangerous if the ship has adequate radiation protection. During the passage of the radiation belts, the Apollo crew was inside the command module, the walls of which were of sufficient thickness ( surface density 7-8 g / cm 2 , which corresponds to the thickness of the aluminum wall 3 cm ) and provided the necessary level of protection [39] [40] . In addition, the flight of the belts occurred rather quickly, and the trajectory lay outside the region of the most intense radiation. Actual measured radiation doses received by astronauts ranged from 0.18 to 1.14 rad with a maximum dose of 50 rad (0.5 Gy ) [41] [42] .
The argument is also put forward that the films in the cameras would inevitably have to be exposed due to radiation. It is curious that the same concerns were expressed before the flight of the Luna-3 station [43] - nevertheless, the Soviet apparatus transmitted normal photographs. Shooting of the moon on film was also successfully carried out by several devices of the " Probe " series.
It should also be noted that inside the spacecraft Zond-5, Zond-6, and Zond-7, which circled the Moon and returned to Earth (1968-1969), there were bioobjects (turtles, Drosophila, etc.) .) and tissue equivalent human phantoms with dosimeters. The measured integral dose in each of the three flights was about 3.5 rad , which corresponded to preliminary calculations. An analysis of the data showed that “the radiation conditions on the investigated route Earth – Moon – Earth with a calm state of solar activity are not dangerous for humans” [44] .
Oleg Orlov , Director of the Institute of Biomedical Problems (IMBP) of the Russian Academy of Sciences, believes that: “Flights to the Moon for up to two months are fundamentally fit into the radiation safety standards that exist for ISS crews” [45] .
The measured maximum dose rate inside the Gemini-11 manned spacecraft (1966), reaching an apogee altitude of 1369 km, was 0.2–0.3 rad / h [46] .
The Dark Side of the Moon
In the pseudo-documentary film [47] “The Dark Side of the Moon "( Eng. Dark Side of the Moon ), released in 2002 , was shown an interview with Christiana Kubrick , widow of director Stanley Kubrick . In this film, she mentions that President Nixon , inspired by Kubrick’s 2001 film " Space Odyssey of the Year 2001 " ( 1968 ), called on the director and other Hollywood specialists to work together to correct the image of the United States in the lunar program. The film was, in particular, shown on November 16, 2003 by CBS Newsworld [48] . Some major Russian news agencies presented this show as a genuine study proving the reality of the lunar conspiracy, and Christiana Kubrick’s interview was seen by proponents of the theory as confirmation that Stanley Kubrick was filming the American landing on the moon in Hollywood [49] [50] . However, already during the scrolling of the credits at the end of the film it is shown that the interviews in the film are fake and are made up of phrases taken out of context or played by actors [51] . Subsequently, the author of the film also confirmed that the film was a well-posed rally [52] .
The real biography of the director is well known. Kubrick made all his films, starting with the Space Odyssey of 2001 (1964-1968), in the UK, where he lived permanently, fearing air travel [53] .
The role of the USSR
One of the aspects of the theory of "lunar conspiracy" is also an attempt to explain the recognition by the Soviet Union of the American landing on the moon. Proponents of the theory of the "moon conspiracy" believe that the USSR did not have convincing evidence of NASA falsifications, other than incomplete intelligence intelligence (or that evidence did not appear immediately). The possibility of a conspiracy between the USSR and the USA to conceal the alleged scam is supposed. The following versions of the reasons that could prompt the USSR to enter into a “lunar collusion” with the United States [24] and stop its lunar-flare and lunar-landing manned lunar programs at the last stages of implementation [54] are described :
- The USSR did not immediately recognize a scam.
- The leadership of the USSR saw in their refusal to expose the American scam a strong bargaining chip (compromising evidence) for permanent political pressure on the United States.
- Immediate exposure could provoke the United States to deploy its program to achieve a real astronaut landing on the moon on a two-start scheme. Saturn-5, although with a smaller PN than stated, was already flying into the orbit of the moon with astronauts, while the USSR had not yet brought the N-1 rocket to accident-free launches, so the country's leadership preferred to demand that all programs be minimized. "Saturn-5" in exchange for the closure of its development on H-1 by 1974 [24] .
- In exchange for silence, the USSR could receive economic concessions and privileges, such as supplying wheat at low prices, assistance in building industrial enterprises in the USSR, and access to the Western European oil and gas market. Among the assumptions are personal gifts to the Soviet leadership. [55] .
- The most radical conspiracy theorists tend to argue that the USSR itself was also just a project of the Americans, designed to arouse fear among ordinary people of an external enemy [56] .
Opponents express doubts on all points [57] :
- The Soviet Union closely monitored the US lunar program, both according to open sources and through a wide network of agents. Since falsification would require the participation of thousands of people, among them with a very high probability would be an agent of the Soviet special services. In addition, the lunar mission was under continuous radio and optical monitoring from various points of the USSR, from ships in the oceans and, possibly, from airplanes, and the received information was immediately checked by specialists. Under such conditions, it is almost impossible not to notice anomalies in the propagation of radio signals. In addition, there were six missions. Therefore, even if the fraud had not been detected immediately, it would have been easy to identify later.
- This probably would have been possible in the 1980s, but not in the context of the Lunar Race and the Cold War. In the USSR and in the socialist world in those years there was euphoria from the successes of the Soviet cosmonautics, which reinforced the thesis, which was fundamental for the USSR and all Marxist movements, about the "superiority of the socialist system over the capitalist system." For the USSR, the defeat in the “Lunar Race” had significant negative ideological consequences both domestically and in the socialist world, but the proof of US failure and falsification would be a very strong trump card in the propaganda of the ideas of Marxism, which would give a new breath to the communist movements in the West , which at that time began to lose popularity. Against this background, the possible benefits of a "conspiracy" with the US for the USSR would not look very tempting. It should not be forgotten that the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s in the United States were marked by a fierce domestic political struggle and, if there had been falsification, American politicians themselves could have exposed it during the struggle. In this case, the USSR would not receive anything from its silence.
- If the USSR took such a step, then why didn’t it become known after the collapse of the USSR?
- Here the principle of "Occam's razor" applies. The reasons for the USSR entering the Western European oil and gas market are well studied, and to explain them, one does not need to involve a possible conspiracy of the USA and the USSR. The price for the supply of wheat in the USSR was even slightly lower than the exchange one, but this was due to the huge volumes of supplies, pickup of products by the Soviet merchant fleet and a payment system that was beneficial for the West. The version about personal gifts is completely doubtful, since on such a vital issue for superpowers these gifts, obviously, should have been very valuable. It’s even hard to imagine their content. In addition, after the collapse of the USSR, information about them would probably become publicly available.
Soviet Lunar Conspiracy
According to one version, the USSR could not raise this topic, as it had its own secret failures that could officially be presented to the US world in response. Among them are the Dogagarin [58] [59] [60] and later unsuccessful flights, including the overflight of the Moon with the Zond-4 spaceship (according to supporters of the conspiracy theory - manned, during which Gagarin allegedly died ) [61] [62 ] ] .
Supporters of the Theory
In different countries
David Percy is a TV producer, an expert in audiovisual technology, and a member of the Royal Photographic Society. He co-authored a book with Mary Bennett “The Dark Moon: Apollo and the Whistleblower” [63] and co-producer of the documentary “What Happened on the Moon?” [64] . He is the main proponent of the hypothesis of the existence of "informants-saboteurs", arguing that the errors in NASA's lunar photographs are so obvious that they are evidence that insiders are trying to report a conspiracy, deliberately adding errors indicating falsification [65] .
is a film director, producer and director of four films of his own film company AFTH [66] , including the 2001 film [67] , which examines evidence of falsification. The main assumption of the film is that the Earth’s radiation belts are the main obstacle to flying to the moon . His conflict with Buzz Aldrin was widely publicized after Cibrel met him in the hotel lobby in Beverly Hills, where Buzz interviewed a Japanese television station [68] and accused the former astronaut of being a “coward, liar and thief.” (It should be noted that this was not the first meeting between Sibrel and Aldrin - a year before this conflict, Sibrel had already met with Aldrin: he came to Aldrin in the office to interview and showed him a video, where, according to Sibrel, the process of falsifying the film was recorded Earth from the Apollo porthole on the way to the moon. Seabrel recorded his meeting with Aldrin, including watching this video. Aldrin threatened prosecution if Seabral publishes a recording of this interview. When meeting in the hotel lobby in Beverly Hills, Seabrell il Aldrin, who is planning to publish a scandalous video [69] . A video of the allegedly rigged shooting of the Earth is contained in Sibrel’s film “A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon.)
is an inventor and self-taught engineer. He wrote and published at his own expense the book "How NASA showed America the Moon" (NASA Mooned America, second edition of OCLC 36317224) [70] . According to the author, the main obstacle to the moon is the Earth’s radiation belts and solar radiation .
Джеймс М. Колльер ( англ. James M. Collier ) — американский журналист и писатель, продюсер видеофильма «Была ли это только бумажная Луна?» [71] , в котором подверг сомнению возможность астронавтов разместиться и беспрепятственно выйти из лунного модуля. Также по заданию редакции исследовал достоверность книги Ральфа Рене «Как NASA показало Америке Луну».
Джек Уайт ( англ. Jack White ) — американский историк фотографии. Исследовал фотографии «Аполлонов» с поверхности Луны и заявил, что обнаружил в них многочисленные свидетельства фальсификации [72] .
В России
Активным сторонником теории лунного заговора выступает российский публицист Юрий Мухин . В своей книге «АнтиАполлон. Лунная афера США» Мухин утверждает, что средства, выделенные американскими налогоплательщиками для полётов на Луну, были разворованы, а сцены «высадки на Луну» были сняты на Земле режиссёром Стэнли Кубриком. По мнению автора, в заговоре также участвовал ЦК КПСС и некоторые из представителей научного сообщества СССР [73] .
Другой сторонник — физикА. И. Попов , поддерживающий взгляды Мухина в книге «Американцы на Луне: великий прорыв или космическая афера?» [74] . А. И. Попов отрицает не только полёты «Аполлонов», но и кораблей « Меркурий » и « Джемини », утверждая, что первый рейс на орбиту американцы совершили только 12 апреля 1981 года — на челноке « Колумбия » [75] .
Юрий Елхов — советский и белорусский кинооператор, кинорежиссёр, сценарист и актёр. Написал электронную книгу «Бутафорская Луна, или Пока живут на свете дураки…» [76] , в которой анализирует лунные видео- и фотоматериалы NASA .
Российский радио- и телеведущий, журналист Александр Гордон в 1997 году выпустил документальный фильм «Ревизская сказка» [77] [78] , в котором поставил под сомнение факт посещения американскими астронавтами Луны. Эта же тема фигурирует во втором фильме цикла «Собрание заблуждений» — «Лунный ветер» [79] .
Российский государственный и общественный деятель Алексей Пушков в 2017 году в серии авторских передач « Постскриптум » опубликовал доводы в пользу версии, что американцы не были на Луне, что высадка человека на Луне не более чем павильонное шоу [80] . С возражениями Пушкову выступили академик РАН Эрик Галимов [81] [82] [83] и главный научный сотрудник ГЕОХИ РАН Александр Базилевский [84] . Пушков позднее поддержал версию о том, что научные работы по исследованию лунного грунта были якобы сфальсифицированы [85] .
Кандидат технических наук Станислав Покровский в 2007 году опубликовал статью в реферируемом научном журнале « Актуальные проблемы современной науки », где на основании анализа кинозаписи полёта ракеты-носителя «Сатурн-5» якобы научно доказал, что набранная ракетой скорость оказалась существенно ниже требуемой для полёта на Луну [86] . На 2018 год нет научных публикаций с опровержением этой статьи.
Отношение специалистов к теории «лунного заговора»
Специалисты считают теорию «лунного заговора» несерьёзной. Например, лётчик-космонавт Алексей Леонов неоднократно отрицал в интервью газетам и на телевидении существование «лунного заговора». В то же время Леонов утверждал, что некоторые съёмки высадок были сделаны в павильоне (« чтобы зритель смог видеть на киноэкране развитие происходящего от начала до конца, в любом [научно-популярном] кино применяются элементы досъёмки ») [87] .
Советский конструктор космической техники Борис Черток , один из самых информированных людей о событиях «лунной гонки» в СССР, в своих воспоминаниях уже после распада СССР категорически отверг саму возможность фальсификации: «В США через три года после высадки астронавтов на Луну вышла книжонка, в которой утверждалось, что никакого полета к Луне не было… Автор и издатель хорошо заработали на заведомой лжи» [88] .
Лётчик-космонавт Георгий Гречко также неоднократно выражал уверенность в реальности лунных экспедиций («мы это знаем совершенно точно»), называя слух о существовании «лунного заговора» «нелепым». При этом Гречко допускал, что могли «подпечатать на Земле пару снимков», приводя аналогичный пример из истории советской космонавтики [89] [90] . Против возможности заговора высказывались и другие космонавты [91] [92] .
Космонавт и конструктор космических кораблей Константин Феоктистов высказался в своей книге «Траектория жизни. Между вчера и завтра» [93] о возможной имитации полетов: « Когда Армстронг, Олдрин и Коллинз летели на Луну, наши приемные радиосредства принимали сигналы с борта „Аполлона-11“, разговоры, телевизионную картинку о выходе на поверхность Луны. Устроить такую мистификацию, наверное, не менее сложно, чем настоящую экспедицию. Для этого надо было бы заранее высадить на поверхность Луны телевизионный ретранслятор и проверить его работу (с передачей на Землю) опять же заранее. А в дни имитации экспедиции нужно было отправить на Луну радиоретранслятор для имитации радиосвязи „Аполлона“ с Землей на траектории полета к Луне. Да и масштабы работ по „Аполлону“ они не скрывали. А то, что они мне показывали в Хьюстоне в 1969 году (Центр управления, стенды, лаборатории), заводы в Лос-Анджелесе по изготовлению кораблей „Аполлон“ и вернувшиеся на Землю спускаемые аппараты, по этой логике должно было быть имитацией?! Слишком сложно и слишком смешно ».
Лётчик-космонавт Александр Лазуткин в интервью радиостанции «Эхо Москвы» заявил: «А что касается вопроса «были ли американцы на Луне» скажу следующее: — «Для меня этот вопрос не существует. Американцы были на Луне». То, что происходит в нашем обществе или американском по этому вопросу, это вопрос прежде всего социальный. Видно, что многим эта тема интересна, и на этом играют средства массовой информации. Конечно, не могу не согласиться, что это еще и результат снижения образованности нашего общества.» [94] .
Директор Института геохимии и аналитической химии РАН Юрий Костицын считает, что инсценировать высадку американцев на Луну было бы сложнее и дороже, нежели ее совершить, а держать обман в секрете было бы невозможно, так как в этой программе участвовало не только НАСА, но и множество независимых фирм: «Вопрос, высаживались ли американцы на Луну в 1961—1972 годах, не спорный. Однако до сих пор в мире ведутся спекуляции на эту тему и преимущественно исходят от людей, которые никакого отношения к космосу не имеют. Вы ни от одного космонавта не услышите о том, что американцы на Луну не высаживались. За разработкой и воплощением программы США „Аполлон“ по пилотируемой высадке на Луну, запущенной в 1961 году, следили во всем мире, в том числе и в СССР… Подделать лунный грунт невозможно. Американцы за семь лунных миссий привезли на Землю около 300 килограмм грунта, преимущественно базальта. Он был исследован в лабораториях учеными из разных стран — Германии, Франции, СССР» [95] .
Заведующий лабораторией геохимии Луны и планет Института геохимии и аналитической химии РАН Евгений Слюта в интервью РИА «Новости» сказал: «Ставить под сомнение американские пилотируемые миссии на Луну – это невежество, признак недостаточного образования. Кому-то теория лунного заговора просто коммерчески выгодна, он на ней деньги зарабатывает. Среди ученых вопрос были или не были — просто не стоит.» [96] .
Директор Сибирского центра синхротронного и терагерцового излучения в Новосибирске Геннадий Кулипанов , рассказывая об использовании СИ в сравнении лунного грунта, доставленного на землю советскими автоматическими станциями и астронавтами США в 1970-е годы, заявил: «Анализ показал почти полную идентичность состава тех и других образцов и это отвергает сегодняшние инсинуации о том, что американцы не высаживались на Луне» [97] .
Другие руководители российской космической отрасли, а также конструкторы космической техники, также отрицали возможность заговора [98] [99] [100] [101] [102] .
Китайское национальное космическое управление считает, что:
<...>Соединенные Штаты завершили в общей сложности шесть пилотируемых полетов на Луну и отправили на Луну 12 астронавтов, доставив около 382 кг лунных образцов и получив большое количество научных данных [103] .
Оригинальный текст (кит.)美国东部时间1969年7月20日22时56分,航天员阿姆斯特朗爬下“阿波罗11号”的舷梯,在月球表面踩下了深深的印记。此后三年,美国共完成6次载人登月,将12名航天员送上月球,带回约382公斤月球样品,获取了大量科学数据。
Высказывания государственных лиц о теории «лунного заговора»
Владимир Путин назвал «полной чушью» версию о том, что США сфальсифицировали высадку на Луну [104] [105] [106] .
Президент Венесуэлы Уго Чавес в своём выступлении на заседании кабинета министров подверг сомнению американские высадки, указав, что информации мировых СМИ нельзя доверять [107] .
Генеральный директор « Роскосмоса » и бывший заместитель председателя правительства Российской Федерации Дмитрий Рогозин в ноябре 2018 года заявил, что российские космонавты во время планирующейся экспедиции на Луну проверят пребывание американцев на спутнике Земли [108] , после чего на следующий день официальный представитель заявил, что это была шутка [109] . 20 июля 2019 года Дмитрий Рогозин поздравил НАСА с юбилеем высадки на Луну [110] .
Фотографии мест посадки, сделанные космическими аппаратами
Снимок КА LRO , 4 сентября 2011 года
| External video files | |
|---|---|
| Видеофильм из кадров LRO места посадки «Аполлон-11» | |
В 2009 году, к сорокалетию полёта «Аполлона-11» автоматическая межпланетная станция LRO выполнила специальное задание — провела съёмку районов посадок лунных модулей земных экспедиций. В период с 11 по 15 июля LRO произвела съёмку и передала на Землю первые в истории детальные снимки самих лунных модулей, посадочных площадок, элементов оборудования, оставленных экспедициями на поверхности и даже следов самих землян от тележки и ровера [111] . За это время были отсняты 5 из 6 мест посадок: экспедиции «Аполлон-11, -14 , -15 , -16 , -17 » [112] .
Позднее КА LRO выполнил ещё более подробные снимки поверхности, где можно чётко дешифрировать не только посадочные модули и аппаратуру со следами лунного автомобиля , но и цепочки следов самих астронавтов [113] .
17 июля 2009 года были опубликованы снимки высокого разрешения мест посадки «Аполлонов», сделанные автоматической межпланетной станцией LRO. На данных снимках видны лунные модули и следы, оставленные землянами при их перемещениях по Луне [114] .
11 августа 2009 года в районе места посадки «Аполлона-14» автоматической межпланетной станцией LRO сделаны снимки поверхности Луны при положении Солнца на 24 градуса выше горизонта, что более ясно показало изменения почвы от операций астронавтов после прилунения [115] [116] .
3 сентября 2009 года опубликован снимок места посадки «Аполлона-12» , сделанный автоматической межпланетной станцией LRO. На снимке различимы инструменты и следы астронавтов, а также автоматический аппарат Surveyor 3 [117] .
По сообщению японского космического агентства JAXA , японский аппарат « Кагуя » также обнаружил возможные следы пребывания спускаемого аппарата «Аполлона-15» [118] .
Ведущий сотрудник Индийской организации космических исследований (ISRO) Пракаш Чаухан сообщил, что индийский аппарат « Чандраян-1 » получил изображения американского спускаемого аппарата и следов, оставленных колёсами вездехода, использовавшегося астронавтами для перемещения по Луне. По его мнению, даже предварительный анализ снимков даёт основания для того, чтобы развеять все высказывавшиеся версии о том, что экспедиция якобы была инсценирована [119] [120] .
Руководитель китайской программы по исследованию Луны Ян Юн заявил, что зонд « Чанъэ-2 » зафиксировал на снимках следы миссий «Аполлон» [121] .
Хранилище образцов лунного грунта
Лаборатория проб лунного грунта находится на площадке Космического центра имени Линдона Джонсона вблизи Хьюстона [122] [123] .
Каждый год около 100 человек посещают хранилище для целей образования и исследований. Сотни учёных по всему миру каждый год получают образцы лунного грунта для исследования [124] [125] .
С 1969 года проводятся международные конференции по лунному грунту. Первая называлась «Apollo Conference», потом, когда появились образцы «Луны-16», конференции стали называть «Lunar Science Conference», а с 1978 они называются «Lunar and Planetary Science Conference» [126] . Сводка ссылок на работы по лунному грунту содержит более 3700 научных работ [127] . Исследования лунного грунта, доставленного «Аполлонами», продолжается до настоящего времени, в том числе в России [128] [129] .
Важно отметить, что доставленные «Аполлонами» образцы лунного вещества (особенно лунный грунт) и образцы, доставленные нашими космическими аппаратами «Луна-16, -20 и -24», представляют собою вещество одного типа. Образцы очень похожи друг на друга […] и резко отличаются от земных веществ.
— [130]
Измеренный геологический возраст самых древних лунных пород ( брекчия 67215) составляет 4,46 ± 0,04 миллиардов лет [131] , что на 86 миллионов лет старше самого древнего земного образца циркона возрастом 4,374 ± 0,006 миллиардов лет [132] .
Раздача лунного грунта в 1969 и 1970 годах
Часть образцов лунных пород, доставленных на Землю миссиями «Аполлон-11» и «Аполлон-12», были розданы для исследования в научные организации США, Европы, Азии, Австралии. Так, в 1969 году, было распределено 18 фунтов ( 8,1 кг ) образцов [133] . В начале 1970 года было распределено около 13 кг образцов, причём за пределы США было направлено около 800 грамм ов [134] .
Около 100 граммов лунного реголита и камней, доставленных экспедицией «Аполлон-11», хранятся в Ахмадабада , Индия [135] , причём индийские ученые исследовали и грунт, доставленный по программе «Луна» [136] .
Отслеживание полётов вне США
Генерал-полковник Николай Каманин в своих дневниках неоднократно упоминает об информации, поступавшей от Главного разведывательного управления о ходе выполнения программы пилотируемых полётов США в 1960-е годы.
Для объективного контроля за программой «Аполлон» секретарь ЦК КПСС Дмитрий Устинов в конце 1967 года дал указание главному конструктору НИИ-885 М. С. Рязанскому разработать радиотехнический комплекс для приёма сигналов космических кораблей США, совершающих облёт Луны и посадку на её поверхность. Такой комплекс был создан к ноябрю 1968 года на основе радиотелескопа ТНА-400 в Крыму. Данные для наведения рассчитывались советскими баллистиками, причём задача облегчалась тем, что угловая ширина диаграммы направленности антенны покрывала практически половину диска Луны. Слежение велось за экспедициями «Аполлон-8», «Аполлон-10», «Аполлон-11» и «Аполлон-12» с декабря 1968 года по ноябрь 1969 года. Телефонные переговоры и телеметрия принимались с хорошим качеством, телевизионный сигнал имел низкое качество. Контрольный комплекс мог принимать сигналы только в своей зоне видимости, которая примерно совпадала с зоной мадридской станции слежения [137] [138] [139] .
Директор Бохумской радиообсерватории Хайнц Камински (Германия) подтвердил приём радиосигналов «Аполлона-11» при спуске на поверхность Луны [140] и приём телевизионного сигнала миссии «Аполлон-16» [141] .
Свен Гран , инженер Шведской космической корпорации подробно описал сеансы приёма сигналов телеметрии и радиообмена миссии «Аполлон-17» с помощью радиолюбительской аппаратуры [142] .
Наблюдение мест посадок земными телескопами
Proponents of conspiracy theory (including Bill Casing) have repeatedly suggested sending a powerful telescope to the moon to observe artifacts left by NASA's lunar expeditions. However, the resolution of ground-based telescopes, until recently, did not allow the detection of artifacts of this size. In 2002, VLT was proposed at the European Southern Observatory to detect Apollo lunar modules [143] , but there is no information as to whether such experiments were carried out.
In January 2018, the Chinese Xinhua News Agency reported on the country's first experience of laser ranging the moon using a reflector installed by the US Apollo 15 mission in 1971 [144] . Before China, the laser location of the moon was engaged in the United States, France, Italy and the USSR.
Other Theories
- There is also a “counter-theory” in which the US special services, in order to preserve more important secrets about the discovery of an alien presence on the moon and in space, provoked an imaginary “leak” of misinformation about the staging of the flights that actually took place, for which they specially set up video, photo and other materials testifying in favor of “falsification” [145] .
See also
- " Capricorn-1 " - an American movie, one of the sources of the theory of "moon conspiracy."
- Lunar Scam is a comedy film that plays up the theory of a lunar conspiracy.
- Soviet lunar program
- Soyuz 7K-L1
- Amerika is an anti-American song by Rammstein , a moon plot is played out in a video clip.
Notes
- ↑ Aleksandrov Ye. B. , Efremov Yu. N. An ungrateful business, but necessary for the people and the state (Russian) // Bulletin “ In Defense of Science ”. - 2012. - Issue. 10 . - S. 23 .
- ↑ 1 2 Efremov Yu. N. The End of the “New Chronology” (Russian) // Bulletin “ In Defense of Science ”. - 2015. - Issue. 15 . - S. 59 .
- ↑ Keysing, Bill. We have never been to the moon . Date of treatment August 23, 2013. Archived on September 4, 2013.
- ↑ Moon Hoax Archived March 10, 2012 on the Wayback Machine wiki
- ↑ Wilford JN A moon landing What moon landing // The New York Times , December 18, 1969
- ↑ Cranny, James J. (1970): Did man land on the Moon? Johnson City, Texas (self-published by author).
- ↑ Kaysing , We Never Went to the Moon, 2002: 20,21,22,23,24)
- ↑ (Kaysing 2002: 23.25)
- ↑ which, however, can be explained by the fact that the panel was on the frame, and the flagpole staggered for some time after installation
- ↑ Ruvinsky V. Why conspiracy theories are gaining popularity. // Vedomosti , 05/11/2018
- ↑ Science and society: authority and trust // Press release of VTsIOM No. 3725, 07.27.2018.
- ↑ Everything that you wanted to know about space, but were afraid to ask ... // Press release of VTsIOM No. 1737, 07/22/2011.
- ↑ McGone D. The tail wags the moon dog, part 3.
- ↑ GPN-2000-001137 unopened (inaccessible link) . Date of treatment June 7, 2008. Archived January 9, 2009.
- ↑ AS17-134-20384HR
- ↑ Popov A.I. “Man on the Moon? What evidence? ” Archived June 20, 2012 on Wayback Machine
- ↑ Michael Light . "Apollo Photography and the Color of the Moon." NASA year 2000.
- ↑ Facts of the Apollo Program . Retouching photos.
- ↑ Brandon Griggs . Could moon landings have been faked? Some still think so , CNN (July 17, 2009). Date of appeal July 27, 2012. (unavailable link)
- ↑ Platoff, Anne M. NASA Contractor Report 188251. Where No Flag Has Gone Before: Political and Technical Aspects of Placing a Flag on the Moon . August 1993 (eng.)
- ↑ Phil Plait. Fox TV and the Apollo Moon Hoax (English) (February 13, 2001). Date of treatment July 27, 2012.
- ↑ NASA erased the original moon landing record. But Hollywood made a new one - even better . NEWSru.com (July 17, 2009). Date of treatment February 25, 2013. Archived February 26, 2013.
- ↑ "Let's check whether the Americans were on the moon or not . " Newspaper.Ru . 2018-11-24. “The astronaut’s jumping height is not too high because, although their body weight on the moon has decreased, their mass has increased due to the suit and life support system. In addition, due to the pressure boost of the spacesuit, the quick movements needed to jump were difficult, and due to the loss of balance control, they could lead to the fall and damage of the spacesuit, helmet or life support system. ”
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 “Americans have never been on the moon.”
- ↑ Description of the test launch of Saturn-5
- ↑ [militera.lib.ru/db/kamanin_np/68.html entry dated October 7, 1968] // Kamanin N.P. Hidden space. Prince 3 1967-1968 - M.: Informext-IF, 1997.
- ↑ Chapter VII // Y. Golovanov. The truth about the Apollo program. - M .: Yauza - Eksmo-Press , 2000 - 352 p.
- ↑ Dr. Wernher von Braun First Center Director, July 1, 1960 - Jan. 27, 1970
- ↑ Two of the 15 missiles launched in the series were not launched due to budgetary constraints (cancellation of the Apollo project), were dismantled and became museum exhibits. The third "rocket" was assembled from parts not intended for flight of test specimens. See “Three Saturn Vs on Display Teach Lessons in Space History”
- ↑ List of US astronauts - members of lunar expeditions
- ↑ 1 2 It all starts with a rocket
- ↑ Velurov A. “Ashtrays” fly to the moon! Part 2. Theft
- ↑ Velurov A. “Ashtrays” fly to the moon! No. 3. Scam
- ↑ Velurov A. “Ashtrays” fly to the moon! // "The Big Kid". - No. 4.
- ↑ (Eng.) [1] Archived September 29, 2006 on the Wayback Machine
- ↑ (Eng.) [2]
- ↑ Lunar modules of all Apollo - drones
- ↑ Popov A.I. Man on the moon? What evidence? Archived July 3, 2012 on Wayback Machine
- ↑ Dorman L.I., Miroshnichenko L.I. Solar cosmic rays. - M .: Nauka , 1968. - Ch. V, § 25 “Solar cosmic rays and radiation hazard”.
- ↑ "Sickening Solar Flares" NASA Data on the Command Wall Effective Wall Thickness
- ↑ English RA, Bensotz RE, Builey JV, Barnes CM (1973): Apollo Experience Report - Protection Against Radiation . In: NASA TN D-7080, p. 3.
- ↑ J. Vernon Bailey . Radiation protection and instrumentation. Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.
- ↑ Domestic lunar odyssey (inaccessible link from 05/26/2013 [2269 days] - history , copy )
- ↑ Gazenko O.G. , Antipov V.V., Parfyonov G.P. Results of biological studies performed at the Zond-5, Zond-6, and Zond-7 stations (Russian) // Space Research . - 1971. - T. 9 , no. 4 . - S. 601-608 .
- ↑ The scientist spoke about the possible impact on the person of flights to the moon // RIA Novosti . - 2019. - April 12. Archived July 2, 2019.
- ↑ Afanasyev I. B., Baturin Yu. M., Belozersky A. G. and others. “Gemini-11”: One turn - and you're done! // World manned space exploration. Story. Equipment. People . - M .: RTSoft, 2005. - S. 77. - 752 p. - ISBN 5-9900271-2-5 .
- ↑ Opération lune on IMDB
- ↑ “Dark Side of the Moon” // CBS Newsworld
- ↑ "Stanley Kubrick filmed the landing of the Americans on the Moon" // NEWSru.com , 11/21/2003
- ↑ "The landing of Americans on the moon was filmed in Hollywood" Archived copy of July 6, 2015 on the Wayback Machine // CNews , 11/21/2003
- ↑ "Taylor, Henry M. (2007): More than a Hoax. William Karel's Critical Mockumentary Dark Side of the Moon . // Post Script, 26: 3, p. 88-101.
- ↑ Interview avec William Karel, réalisateur d'Opération Lune et Poison d'avril (French)
- ↑ Attivissimo, 2017 , 10.3 Stanley Kubrick shot the fake footage, p. 354: "Moreover, since the early Sixties, Kubrick no longer lived in the United States. "He lived in the United Kingdom, where he shot all of his movies (including 2001) and had a well-known fear of travel, especially in aircraft."
- ↑ “Lunar Race - a contractual game?”
- ↑ How could a conspiracy of the USSR and the USA on the lunar program (a list of primary sources).
- ↑ Dmitry Yerusalimsky "60 years of NASA: the truth and myths about the space agency." // Moscow Komsomolets , 10/02/2018
- ↑ Pervushin (2019), 2019 , Myth No. 26. The Soviet government hid the falsification of flights to the moon, p. 385-394.
- ↑ Moiseenko A. Was Gagarin the twelfth? (Russian) , Komsomolskaya Pravda (July 11, 2005). Date of treatment July 23, 2018.
- ↑ Pervushin A.I. “The terrible secret” of Soviet cosmonautics // The X-Files of the XX Century. - No. 18 (120), September 2003. - S. 10-11.
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