Blue steel

In the 1950s, the rapid development of air defense (Air Defense) rapidly reduced the combat value of aircraft armed with free-falling bombs. Great Britain’s nuclear potential, which began to develop in 1953, was presented exclusively by free fall bombs for the first few years, carried by the strategic bombers Vulcan , Victor and Valient (the so-called B-bombers ). However, the British military was aware of the weakness and vulnerability of these aircraft in the event of a war with the USSR , which had developed and effective air defense. According to NATO , the power of Soviet defense could inflict losses on the British bombers close to 100% ^[1] . The need for adopting such ammunition that would allow airplanes to drop them without entering the air defense zone — air-to-surface missiles ^[2] became obvious.

In the report of the Ministry of supply of Great Britain dated November 5, 1954 it was said ^[3] :

In another report, specific requirements for a rocket were put forward: a speed of at least M = 2 (that is, two times higher than the speed of sound ). It was also assumed that the rocket will be equipped with a nuclear charge of 200 kilotons ^{[2] [3]} . During the design, it was supposed to give the missile a range of about 100 miles (160 km ) ^[4] .

The development of the rocket began in 1954 by Avro . The missile was named in accordance with the so-called. " Rainbow code " adopted by the UK Department of Supply. The project proved to be very difficult for British industry, not only because of the decline in the technological potential of the country, but also because many of the elements of the project were too innovative for the 1950s. For this reason, for example, the process of creating an inertial homing system was faced with great difficulties. Gyroscopes for it were purchased in the United States , but the British made the rest of the components on their own. Another problem was the absence in the UK of a nuclear charge that would have the required power and at the same time be suitable in size and weight. In this regard, the possibility of using a scheme of any of the American charges was considered. This issue was resolved only by the beginning of the 1960s with the advent of London's own thermonuclear weapons (the first test in May 1957 ) ^[3] .

Many problematic issues arose around the creation of the hull and the plumage of the rocket, which were supposed to experience increased loads at the required speeds ^[5] . Not without difficulties, the Blue Steel engine was also developed ( Armstrong-Sidley developed the Stentor engine) ^[3] .

All these problems led to a dragging out of work. Preliminary tests of individual Blue Steel units began in 1959 . Testing of the first prototype rockets began in 1960 in Australia at the Woomera test site . The missile was launched from the Vulcan and Victor bombers; it was decided to abandon the Blue Steel equipment of the Valient bombers because of their forthcoming withdrawal from service. According to analysts, the tests revealed many serious flaws in the rocket ^[6] . The project to create a new version of the rocket, "Blue Steel-2", with an increased range of up to 700 miles and a speed of M = 3, was curtailed in 1959 ^[4] . Only in September 1962, the missile was recognized by the Royal Air Force as suitable for solving tasks ^[6] .

Great Britain recognized the numerous shortcomings of the Blue Steel, primarily its insufficient range (150 miles, 240 km), which by the early 1960s no longer met the requirements for delivering a strategic nuclear strike and did not allow carrier aircraft to effectively avoid air defense ^[5] . Therefore, London was exploring options for adopting other airborne fusion delivery systems. In 1960, an agreement was reached with the United States on the supply of Britain with the Skybolt , the cruise missile, which was planned for 1964–65 . However, in December 1962, President J. Kennedy announced to British Prime Minister G. Macmillan the cancellation of this decision. This most seriously affected further British planning in the development of strategic nuclear forces and forced London, in the absence of other cruise missiles, to undertake a deep modernization of the Blue Steel even before it was put into service ^[1] .

Aerodynamic design

"Blue Steel" was performed according to the aerodynamic scheme "duck" . In the head part, the rocket had a horizontal rudder of a triangular shape in plan with cut ends, in the tail part - a triangular wing with bent ends and two keels. When installing the rocket on the carrier (aircraft), the ventral keel was folded and mounted vertically after take-off. The rocket was painted in white "anti-atomic" color, reflecting the light radiation of a nuclear explosion ^[6] .

Engine

The Stentor Mk101 liquid-propellant rocket engine was located at the rear of the Blue Steel. He had two combustion chambers - the upper (large) and lower (small) with a maximum draft at sea ​​level of 7,260 and 1,800 kg, respectively ^[7] . Acceleration of the rocket to maximum speed was carried out during the operation of both cameras with a fixed thrust. Upon reaching the set speed, the upper camera was turned off. The work was continued by the lower, small chamber, the thrust of which varied depending on the flight conditions, maintaining the rocket speed at the same level. The upper chamber supported a fixed thrust with an accuracy of ± 5%, the lower chamber with an accuracy of ± 2.5%. Kerosene and hydrogen peroxide, respectively, served as the fuel and oxidizer ^{[3] [6]} .

Blue Steel refueling with fuel and oxidizer was carried out before installation on the plane. It was a difficult and dangerous process due to the increased fire hazard and high chemical aggressiveness of hydrogen peroxide. Refueling was carried out by personnel in protective suits and took about 30 minutes ^[6] .

Head part

After the adoption of the missile was equipped with a warhead with a capacity of 1.1 megatons, the basis of which was the thermonuclear charge "Red Snow" , based on the scheme of a similar American ammunition W-28 ^{[6] [8]} .

The Blue Steel was equipped with an analog inertial guidance system. Moreover, this system could serve as an auxiliary for the aircraft in the event of a failure of its on-board navigation system. Before separating the rocket from the carrier, the exact coordinates of the launch site from the aircraft navigation system were entered into the rocket control system ^[6] .

Performance Data

Blue Steel was a very large product. Its length was 10.7 m, the feathering range was 4 m, and its weight was 6,800 kg ^[8] .

The flight of the rocket took place at a speed of M = 2.5. The maximum range reached 150 miles (240 km). A few kilometers from the target, the rocket began to dive. The likely deviation of the Blue Steel, depending on the firing range, was within 100-600 m ^[6] . According to some reports, when diving at a target, the missile detached the head part ^[7] .

The missiles of the first years of release were designed to be launched when the aircraft was at high altitudes. In this case, the flight of the rocket took place mainly also in the stratosphere . However, due to the improvement of air defense systems by the end of the first half of the 1960s, it became clear that only the actions of strategic bombers at low altitudes can increase the likelihood of overcoming their air defense system. Therefore, shortly after the start of supplies, the Blue Steel underwent modernization in order to be used from the lowest altitudes - about 300 m. Such a modification of the rocket was called Mk1A (project "Blue Steel Low Level" - "low-altitude Blue Steel"). Subsequently, all fired missiles were modified to the level of Mk1A. Work on modifications of the Mk1D and Mk2 with improved features was canceled ^[6] .

The Blue Steel was formally adopted at the end of 1962 and began to enter the Air Force in February 1963. She was equipped with bombers "Volcano" and "Victor". The large dimensions of the rocket did not allow the Blue Steel to be placed in the bomb compartments of the B-bombers, so the aircraft designed to carry it underwent significant structural changes - a recess was made in the bottom of their fuselage in which the rocket was fixed. Each aircraft could carry only one rocket.

According to some reports, 53 units of Blue Steel were produced ^[4] , according to others - 57, of which 40 were deployed ^[8] . Some sources point to 73 units produced, which was enough to equip 48 bombers and a stock of missiles for training launches and tests ^[6] .

The value of the Blue Steel as a means of strategic nuclear strike has been doubtful since the very adoption. The main drawback was its short range, which even in the case of a deep modernization of the rocket would not meet the requirements. Analysts emphasized that even in the case of giving Blue Steel a range of 400 miles, carrier aircraft could be intercepted by Soviet Tu-128 fighters capable of operating outside the coverage area of ​​USSR ground - based radars ^[4] .

The development of the commissioning program for the first British Polaris ballistic missile submarines (the first submarine went on duty in 1968), which corresponded much better to the concept of strategic deterrence , finally convinced the British ruling circles of the desirability of abandoning the Blue Steel. The rocket was withdrawn from the arsenal of "Victor" in 1968 . The Volcano made its final flight with the Blue Steel on December 21, 1969 ^[3] . In 1970, the rocket was completely withdrawn from service ^[2] . After the removal of the Blue Steel from service, the strategic nuclear arsenal of Great Britain began to consist only of missile submarines.

In 1960, the cost of one copy of Blue Steel was estimated at 60 million pounds. Art., however, with the development of the program of its creation and adoption, this figure has increased significantly ^[5] .

• X-20
• AGM-28 Hound Dog
• Blue Danube (nuclear bomb)

• V. G. Trukhanovsky . English nuclear weapons. Historical and political aspect .. - M. , 1985.