Causative

Morphological causatives

In some languages, special affixes exist with the help of which morphologically derived causatives are formed from non-causative verbs. The morphological causative is formed in a regular and productive way ^[5] .

One of the most famous examples in the literature of the morphological causation gives the Turkish language ^[6] . The Turkish language has the suffixes -t and -dür , which can join almost any verb and form its causative correlate.

(Note: Hereinafter, the causative metric is denoted by the abbreviation CAUS.)

Ali	Hasan-i	öl- dür -dü
Ali: NOM	Hasan ACC	die-caus-past
Ali killed Hasan.

Dışçı	Hasan-a	mektub-u	müdür	tarafından	göster- t -ti
Dentist	Hasan-dat	ACC letter	director	through	show-caus-pst
Dentist	forced (causated)	directors show	a letter to Hasan [7] .

In Finnish, a productive morphological causation is presented, expressed as a morpheme with a large number of allomorphs .

Opettaja	laula tta a	oppilasta
Teacher	sing .CAUS.3SG	apprenticePART
Teacher	forced (causated)	student sing.

Minä	rakenna tat -in	talo-n	työnjohtaja-lla
I	build.CAUS.CAUS-PST-1SG	house-DO	ADES Manager
I made	manager (to pause)	anyone	build a house [8] .

In Hungarian, a causative is formed using a number of suffixes ( -tat / -tet, -at / -et, -aszt / -eszt and others) ^[9] .

A mama	el-al- tat -ja	a kis-fi-át
Mom: NOM	PFV-Sleep-CAUS-OBJ	child. 3Sg-ACC
Mama	put to sleep	your child [10] .

Analytical causation

In addition to morphological causatives, syntactically derived causatives are also found in the language, where the meaning of causation is expressed by an auxiliary word (more often, a verb). Analytical or syntactic causatives include English make + INF, German lassen + INF, French faire + INF, and others.

• English:

He works for me.

He works for me.

I make him work for me.

I make him causate for me.

• French:

Jean écrira une lettre au directeur.

Jean will write a letter to the director.

Je ferai écrire une lettre au directeur par Jean.

I will make Jean write a letter to the director ^[11] .

Causal constructions that do not form a single whole, such as English. cause to + INF, dumb zwingen zu + INF, Russian force + INF, most linguists do not relate to syntactic causations. They create a semantic structure denoting two independent events, and in this respect resemble polypredicative constructions .

Morphological causatives and analytical causatives in the aggregate form a class of grammatical causatives opposed to lexical causatives ^[12] .

Lexical causatives

Many non-derivative transitive verbs contain the caus component in their signified. Such causatives are called lexical. In such cases, the language uses a separate lexical unit to indicate causation.

The lexical causative is formed in an unproductive way and most often expresses direct causation, in contrast to the grammatical causation, which usually means indirect causation. It assumes the unity of time and place for the act of causation and the situation being causated ^[13] .

In addition, those morphologically derived verbs that are formed using unproductive and irregular morphological means and whose meaning has undergone phraseologization are also considered lexical causatives ^[12] .

In the Russian language , lexical causatives include verbs such as cutting {X in a certain way causates that Y becomes divided into parts}, kill {X causing that Y is dying}, putting {X causating that Y lies}, open {X caus that Y opens} and others ^[12] .

Examples of lexical causatives in English :

rise - raise (rise - raise something)

eat - feed

lie - lay

Examples of lexical (unproductive) causatives in Japanese :

turn the magaru → bend the magician

Kovarera to be broken → Kovas to break

There are verbal lexemes in which the causative and non-causative meanings are expressed in the same form. They are called labile verbs. So, the English verbs open (open / open) and move (move / move) can be used as transitive and intransitive ^[14] .

Semantic types of causatives

Remote and contact causation

Contact causation implies a direct relationship between the causative and the causative entities. The causer performs physical actions with the causable, leading to the implementation of the causable situation. In distant causation, there is an indirect connection between the causative subject and the causable state, in which a greater or lesser independence of the causative subject in accepting the state (or rejection) of the state is actualized ^[15] . The spatio-temporal parameters of the causative and causal events may differ. With contact causation, they partially or completely coincide.

Mansi :

ūnt (u) (sit down) - ūnt- t (u) (sit down) - iint-tu-pt (a) - (ask to sit down) ^[16]

Komi-Zyryansky :

puk (to sit down) - puk- t - (to lay) - puk-öd (to causate to sit down) ^[16]

Rwanda :

shyúuh- (bask) - shyúuh y (cont. causative) - shyúuh iish- ( dist . causative)

ambuk- (bask) - ambu ts - (cont. causative) - ambuk iish- ( dist . causative) ^[13]

Actual and permissive causation

In case of factual causation, the source or the only source of change is the causative subject: I told him to come, I called him, I closed the door . With permissive causation, the primary source of these changes is the subject to be caused, and the role of the causative subject is reduced to allowing these changes or preventing them: I allowed him to come, I did not let him in, he did not let the door close ^[15] .

These two basic meanings conceal a wide range of particular types of causation - from the physical bringing of a causable subject to a certain state by the causer to the inhibition of the action of ignorance, inattention, negligence or inability to prevent ^[17] .

Somewhat separate from the factual and permissive meanings, but closer to the latter, is the meaning of “assistiveness” (or help), inherent, for example, in causative affixes in the Zulu and Georgian languages ^[18] .

Also distinguish are causative indicators with the meaning of indirect causation, such as “horn” (request), “declarative” and others.

Double Causation

In various languages, secondary causative derivation is permissible - causation of causation, when causative verbs are formed by adding a causative morpheme to causative verbs ^[2] .

Russian:

Dad told his mother to force Vasya to do homework ^[2] .

Purepecha (Tarascan) :

Valeria	urhu- ra - tara -s-ti	tsiri-ni	Eratzini-ni	Yuyani-ni.
Valeria: NOM	grind-CAUS-CAUS-PRF-IND.3	grain obj	Eratzin-OBJ	Uyani-OBJ
Valeria ordered	Eratzin to force Uyani	grinding grain [2] .

In languages, various combinations of the first and second causative affix are found: the secondary affixation of the same affix completely; Joining a new affix joining only those elements of the second affix that do not coincide with the first affix ^[19] .

The reverse to causation is the process of decausatization: a situation that was initially presented as agentic is transformed into a non-causative situation that does not have an external agent and occurs as if “on its own” ^[20] .

Unlike the morphological causative, in the Indo-European languages ​​the morphological decausative is represented very widely ^[20] .

In the French language , for example, there is an analytical decausative, an indicator of which is the reflexive clique:

briser (break) - se briser (break)

plier (bend) - se plier (bend) ^[21]

In Russian the picture is almost similar, only the suffix-s serves as an indicator of the reflexive ^[22] :

The news pleased Petya.

Petya was delighted.

Decausatives are not necessarily morphological derivatives of causatives (as in Russian). In a language, there can be both a causative and a decausative indicator. (for example, in the Dogon language) ^[23] .

The decausative metric often coincides with the reflective metric. The reason for this coincidence is semantic (in both cases there is no agent participant separate from the main subject).

Types of formal relationships in pairs of causative and decausative verbs can be summarized as follows ^[2] :

• Suppletivism : Different Roots Used

Russian : die - kill

• Equipolent opposition: in each of the two cases, its own indicators are used

Khakassian : ügr- en (study) - ügr- et (study)

• Lability: one token has both causative and decausive meaning

Russian : pouring (I pour water into the pan - water is pouring from the pipe)

• Marked causative:

Sanskrit : jan-ati (born) - jan- ay -ati (gives birth)

• Marked Decausative:

Russian : smash - smash

Despite the fact that collateral and causation often have the same indicators, it is impossible to consider causation as one of the collaterals. There are at least four properties of a causative that distinguish it from collaterals ^[24] :

• The pledge does not change the denotative value of the original verb. Collateral transformations only change the pragmatic interpretation of the situation. On the contrary, it is the semantic transformations of the original structure that are the defining sign of actant derivation.

• In languages ​​that have both a pledge and a causative, the forms of the pledge are not idiomatic (or, at least, very rarely); causatives are phraseologized much more often.

• Different pledges cannot be combined with each other within the same word form; in a number of languages, causation can be combined with pledges.

• Pledge is never expressed in word form twice, while double causatives are quite common.

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