Wa (people, Japan)

The earliest references to Japan are in classical Chinese texts . In Dynasty stories, Japan is mentioned among other ( Chinese trad. 東夷 , ex. 东夷 , pinyin : dōngyí , pall .: Dunyi ). It should be noted that significant distances (thousands) should not be taken literally ^[1] .

The historian Wang Zhenping summarized Wah’s contacts with the Chinese:

When the tribal leaders turned to the authorities of Chinese district on the territory of modern North Korea, founded in 108 BC by the Western Han dynasty), they wanted to benefit from the fact that they were the first to start communication. In 57 A.D., the first wax ambassador arrived in the capital of Eastern Han (25-220); the second arrived in 107.

However, diplomats never traveled to China on a permanent basis, which proves the chronology of Sino-Japanese relations from the 1st to the 9th centuries. At that time, contacts were frequent, but very irregular, which clearly means that Japan built relations with China according to its own scenarios and schedule, acting exclusively in its own interests.

For example, not a single wax ambassador was in China throughout the entire 2nd century AD. e., as well as most of the III century. But the ruler in Himiko for nine years sent four ambassadors to the Wei court (220-265) - in 238, 243, 245 and 247. After her death, contacts with China decreased. Himiko's heiress, Toyo, contacted the Chinese government only once. In the IV century, the only delegation was sent to the court of Western Jin (265-316) in 306. With the arrival of the wax ambassador to the court of East Jin (317-420) in 413, a new period of frequent contacts began. Over the next 60 years, ten ambassadors were called to the court of South Song (420–479), and in 479 a delegation visited the court of South Qi (479–502). In the VI century, only one ambassador was sent again, in 502 he visited South Liang (502–557). Upon arrival in China, all ambassadors received state titles, bronze mirrors and banners, which could be used to assert superiority, military power and pressure on southern Korea

- Wang Zhenping 2005: 221—222

The first known mention of wa is found in the Book of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Jing), published between 300 BC. e. and 250 year n. e. The chapter “Hai Nei Bei Jing” ( Chinese trad. 海內 北 經 , ex. 海内 北 经 , pinyin : hǎinèiběijīng ) speaks of wa, as well as real (like Korea) and mythological (for example, Mount Penglai ) places.

Kai land is located south of Juian ( Chinese 鉅 燕 ) and north of Wo. Wo belongs to Yan

Original text (Chinese)

蓋 國 在 鉅 燕南 倭 北 倭 屬 燕 朝鮮 在 列 陽 東海 北 山南 列 陽 屬 燕

- Nakagawa 2003: 49

According to Nakagawa, Juian was a principality within Yan, which, presumably, had contacts with the "dwarfs" in.

Lun Heng

In the work of Wang Chun, c. (Circa 70–80 CE), composed of an essay on philosophical, religious, and natural science topics, namely his chapter "Ruizen" ( Chinese. 増 ) , mentions "vozhen" , 倭人, as well as Yueshan ( Chinese 越 裳 ) , the name of Tampa , whose leaders offered gifts to the Zhou Dynasty . When retelling the legends that the ancient Zhou tripods used to be able to drive away evil spirits, Wang says: “In the time of Zhou, there was peace. Yueshan was sent to the court of white pheasants, and vozhen - incense plants ( Chinese. 獻 白 雉 倭人 貢 鬯 草 ) . Since even thanks to eating white pheasants or incense plants, a person cannot completely escape from evil influence, why should vessels like these tripods have such strength? ” ^[2] .

Another chapter, Huygo ( Chinese trad. 恢 國 , ex. 恢 国 , pinyin : huīguó ), also states that Cheng-di received gifts from Vietnamese peasants and Japanese herbs.

Hanshu

In a book published around 82 A.D. e., Han , which describes the Early Han (206 BC - 24 AD), in the section “Geographical Records” ( Chinese. 志 , Pinyin : dìlǐzhì , pall .: Dili Zhi ), it is said that they live in a hundred “go” ( Chinese trade. 國 , ex. 国 , pinyin : guó , literally: “state, kingdom, land, possession”):

Overseas Lolan people live in. Vaud contains over one hundred possessions ( Chinese 樂 . 海 中 有 倭人 分爲 百餘 國 ) . They say that they have relations with China through gifts and ambassadors ^[3] .

U-di founded Lelan Prefecture in 108 BC. e.

Book of Wei

In the Book of Wei , which describes, among other things, the history of Wei (220-265 AD), the chapter “Meetings with the Oriental Barbarians” ( Chinese 東夷 伝 ) contains records of “wojen” based on information received from Chinese ambassadors, traveled to Japan. It contains the first records of Yamatai-koku , the queen-shaman Khimiko, and other historical events.

The Japanese are located southeast of Daifang, in the middle of the Big Sea. Inhabited by mountains and islands, form a country. There are many mountains and forests on their land, no good fields; eat seafood.

In the old days they had over 100 small estates. With the advent of time [Cao] wei, there were 30 possessions that were in good relations

Original text (Chinese)

倭人 在 帯 方東南 大海 之中 依山 爲 國 邑 舊 百 餘國漢 時 有 朝見 者 今 使 早 譯 所 通 三十 國

- Tsunoda 1951: 8; The Tradition of Wah People from the History of the Wei State ; Küner N.V. Chinese news of the peoples of South Siberia, Central Asia and the Far East

In addition, the Book of Wei describes a journey from Korea to Wa around the Japanese archipelago:

Is the country of Well (a thousand . 奴 國 ) located a thousand to the south, the lord is called "simako" there, and his assistant - hinumori. There are more than 20,000 houses ^[4]

Ryusaku Tsunoda suggests that “country Nu” (Japanese country Na ) was located near modern in Kyushu .

About 12,000 li to the south lies Gonugo ( Chinese trade. 狗 奴 國 , ex. 狗 奴 国 , pinyin : gǒunúguó , literally: “the dog country of slaves”, 狗 奴 国 kunakoku ), which was identified with the Kumaso tribe, living on the territory of Higo and Osumi . Besides,

At a distance of more than a thousand east of the Queen’s possessions lie the states of people of the same race as wa. To the south is the island of dwarfs ( Chinese trad. 侏儒 國 , ex. 侏儒 国 , pinyin : zhūrúguó , pall .: Zhuzhugo ), where people live 90-120 cm tall. This place is located more than four thousand from the queen’s land. There are the possessions of naked people and people with black teeth ( Chinese trad. 裸 國 黒 齒 國 , ex. 裸 国 黒 齿 国 , pinyin : luǒguó hēichǐguó , pall .: Logo heichigo ). You can sail there by boat, if you sail to the southeast during the year ^[5] .

One paragraph of the Book of Wei is about how Queen Wa sent officials to the Wei court in 238, who generously gifted them in return. Among the gifts was a gold seal with the title “Queen Wa, welcoming to Wei” ^[6] .

In another paragraph, Ba was tattooed with the image of the legendary ruler Xia Dynasty :

Men, young and old, tattoo their faces and adorn their bodies with patterns. Since ancient times, ambassadors who arrived in China have called themselves great men ( Chinese 大夫 , pinyin : dàfù , pall .: Dafu ). The son of Shaokan from Xia, when he was granted the title of Lord Kuaizhi, cut off his hair and decorated his body with patterns to protect himself from snakes and dragons. Ba, often diving for fish and shellfish, also adorned their bodies to avoid large fish and water birds. Later drawings became ornaments ^[7]

“Great husband” - translation of the Chinese word “Dafu” (dignitary, official, civilian rank; wise (great) husband; county leader ^[8] ), in Japan it, with the reading of “taifu”, has received the meaning “court official of the fifth rank” . In particular, in Nihongi, Ambassador Imoko is called precisely “taifu”.

Another book about Wei, (239-265 C.E.) has not survived, however, some of its parts are cited by other authors, including San-ji commentator Pei Songzhi ( Chinese 裴 松 之 , pinyin : Péi Sōngzhī ) 429 years He quotes the lines. where it is said that they call themselves descendants of Taibo, Uncle Wen-wang , who left the throne to his nephew and founded the kingdom of U (585–473 BC). There is a part in Shi Ji called “The Noble Family of Wu Taibo” ( Chinese trad. 吳太伯 世家 ), a sanctuary dedicated to Wu is located in Wuxi . Researchers have noted commonities in U and Wo culture, including ritual knocking out of teeth, carrying children on their backs, and tattoos.

Hou Hanshu

In a book published around 432 by Hou Hanshu ( Chinese trad. 後 漢書 , ex. 后 汉书 , pinyin : Hòu Hàn shū , literally: “the book of the Late Han”), which describes the reign of the Late Han dynasty (25-220. ), Vozhen ( Chinese. 倭人 ) are described in the section “Meetings with the Eastern Barbarians” ( Chinese. 東夷 伝 )

You live on the mountainous islands southeast of Daivan in the middle of the ocean, in more than a hundred communities ( Chinese. 倭人 在 帯 方東南 大海 之中 依山 爲 國 邑 舊 百餘 國 ) . By the time of the overthrow of Zhaoxiang by the emperor, about 30 communities of the VA had contacts with the Han through scribes and ambassadors. Each community had a king, and the title was inherited. The King of Great Wah is located at the edge of Yamadai ( Chinese 邪 馬 台 国 ) ^[9] .

A comparison of the descriptions of wa in Wei-chi and Hoi hans allows us to clearly determine that the latter is derivative. A further description of "naked dwarfs with black teeth covered with tattoos" is also borrowed from Wei-chi.

If you leave the land of the queen and cross the sea in the east, then, after a thousand or so , you can reach the country of Kunu ( Chinese. 狗 奴 國 ) where people of the same race live as va. They are not subjects of the queen. Four thousand li from the queen’s possessions there is a country of dwarfs ( Chinese 侏儒 國 ) , its inhabitants are 120-150 centimeters tall. If you sail for a year to the southeast of the country of dwarfs, then you can reach the lands of naked people, as well as the country of people who blacken their teeth ( Chinese 裸 國 黑 齒 國 ) ; we have not been further ^[10]

There are parts missing from Wei-ji in Hou Han:

In ... [57], the Vaska country Well ( Chinese. 國 ) sent an ambassador with a tribute, who called himself ta-fu (大夫). This country is located in the extreme south of the country of Ba. Guang-u gave him a seal. In ... [107], during the reign of An-di (107-125), King Wa gave An-di sixty slaves, at the same time requesting an imperial audience ^[11] )

Tsunoda also supports the view that the country of Nu (Na) is located in : in 1784, a gold seal was found there with the inscription “Han [vassal?] King of the vaska country of Nu” ( Chinese 漢 委 奴國王 ) . Although King Ba’s name is not included in the text above, it was named Shuayshen in the original ( 帥 升 Suisyo:) .

Song Book

The Song Book , published in 488, describes the story of Liu Song (420–479). In the section “On the Southern Barbarians” ( Chinese trade. 夷 蠻 , ex. 夷 蛮 , pinyin : yímán , pall .: Iman ), Japan is called “Vogo” ( Chinese. 倭國 ) , the Japanese reading is “wakoku”, and placed on Goguryeo place. Unlike previous testimonies that called you a nation ( Chinese. ) , Here they are called the state ( Chinese. ) .

Country Ba lies in the middle of the great ocean, southeast of Goguryeo. From generation to generation [the people of wa] carry out their duty of offering tributes. In ... [421] the first emperor said in his order: “Tsan ( Chinese. , Emperor Nintoku , who ruled in 313-319) sends tribute through tens of thousands of li. His loyalty, despite its considerable remoteness, is commendable. May the rank and title be granted to him. ” When Zan died and his brother Zhen ascended the throne ( Chinese 珍 , Emperor Hansei , c. 406-411), the latter sent tribute to China. Hanzei was signed by King Wah, as well as the Commander-in-Chief, pacifying the East ( Chinese 安 東 大 將軍 倭王 ) , and China confirmed this title. In [443], Tsai ( Chinese 濟 , Emperor Ingyo , ruled c. 412–453), King Ba, sent ambassadors with a tribute and was again confirmed in both titles. In [451], the king of va received the title of General, pacifying the eastern lands of Va, Silla, Imna, Kala, Jinhan and Mokhan with a battle ax ^[12]

The Song Book contains details of relations with Japan, which means that Japanese emperors appreciated legitimization in the eyes of Chinese emperors.

Book of Liang

The Liang Book of 635 contains notes on the journey of monk Hui Shen to Wah and the legendary country of Fusan . There, Japan is called “wo” ( Chinese 倭 ) , without the addition of “country” or “people”, and is placed in the section on eastern barbarians and begins with the legend of Taibo:

Va call themselves the descendants of Taibo. By tradition, they all tattoo themselves. Their lands lie more than 12,000 li from Daifang , east of Guiji (modern Shaoxing ), albeit at a great distance.

Original text (Chinese)

倭 者 自 云 太 伯 之後 俗 皆 文身 去 帶 方 萬 二 千餘 里 大抵 在 會稽 之 東 相去 絶 遠

- Book of Liang

Later texts repeat the myth of the origin of the Japanese from Taibo. In book 648, the Book of Jin , dedicated to the Jin Dynasty (265-420), the other verb is used to denote the word “call”: wei ( Chinese trad. 謂 , ex. 谓 , pinyin : wèi “call, dignify”), instead of yun ( Chinese 云 , pinyin : yún “speak, call”). In a 1084 book, Chinese trad. 資治通鑑 , ex. 资治通鉴 , pinyin : Zīzhì Tōngjiàn ) states that “modern Japan is also thought to have come from Taibo from W; perhaps when W was destroyed, [members of the side branch] of the royal family disappeared by the sea and began to ” ( Chinese 今日 本 又云 吳太伯 之後 蓋 吳 亡 其 支 庶 入 海 為 倭 ) .

Book Sui

In the Book of Sui of 636, information about va is included in the section “Oriental barbarians”. Country Ba is placed behind Baekje and Silla .

Vogo ( Chinese 倭國 ) is located in the middle of the vast ocean southeast of Baekje and Silla, three thousand miles across the sea and land. The population lives on mountainous islands ( Chinese 倭國 在 百 濟 新 羅東南 水陸 三 千里 於 大海 之中 依山 島 而居 ) . During the reign of Wei, more than thirty communities [of Vogo], each ruled by a king, had contacts with China. These barbarians do not know how to measure the distance in whether and evaluate it in days [path]. Their possessions number five months from the east and three months from north to south; the sea lies on all sides. Their lands are mountainous in the east and lowland in the west ^[13]

In the year 607, the Book of Sui states that “King Tarisihoko” (the mistaken record of Empress Suiko ) sent [a] ambassador, Buddhist monks and tribute to Sui Yan-di . His [her] message contains the word “tianzi” (天子) , “Son of Heaven,” the Chinese emperor.

The Son of Heaven in the country where the Sun rises, writes to the Son of Heaven the country where the Sun sets. We hope you are in good health.

When the Chinese emperor saw such a message, he became angry and told the foreign affairs directors that this was a barbaric letter and that such letters should not be presented to his attention ^[14] . In 608, the emperor sent an ambassador to Wa Pei Qing, who returned with the Japanese delegation.

The Japanese chronicle of the Nihonga contains records of the ambassadors of 607 and 608, but from a different perspective ^[15] . The description is more detailed, for example, the name of the ambassador Imoko-no Wono-no Omi and translator Kuratsukuri-no Fukuri, but the answer of the Chinese is not included there. According to Nihongi, when Imoko returned from China, he apologized to Suiko for losing Jan’s letter: “The Baekje people searched me and selected the message. Therefore, I can’t introduce it to you. " When the empress accepted Pei, he gave her the appeal of the Chinese emperor, in which he speaks of himself, using the word “Huangdi” ( Chinese 皇帝 ) , and Suiko saying “King Wa” ( Chinese. , Pinyin : wōwáng , pall. : vovan ) that has a subtext of “sovereign”. According to Nihongi, Suiko handed another letter to Pei, where she called herself “tenno” (皇天皇 tenno: Japanese emperor) , and Chinese - “kotei” ( я ko: tei ) .

The Empress of the East [天皇] respectfully addresses the emperor [皇帝] of the West. Your ambassador arrived - Pei Shitsin, who is responsible for meetings with foreigners, as well as his retinue. My old desires were satisfied. It is autumn and it is getting cooler. How are you being scared? I hope everything is OK. I have everything as usual. I'm sending So Inko, the rank of dairai, and Wonari, the rank of dairai. I respectfully report. I apologize for the brevity.

Aston quotes from Shoku Nihonga , which says that the Japanese mission refused to write “wa” with the character China. 倭 .

Wono-no-Imoko, the ambassador who visited China, proposed changing the term to “Nippon,” but Emperor Sui refused. The word "Nippon" was first used in the period 618-626 years. " Another Chinese authority cites the year 670 as the date when the word "Nihon" began to be used in China ^[16]

Tan

The tradition of writing “wa” with the Chinese character . Ended in the reign of the Tang Dynasty (618–907). Japanese scribes coined the name “Nihon / Nippon” ( 日本 ) 8 around 608–645 and replaced the character 倭 with a more pleasant one with the same reading and the meaning “harmony, peace” ( я ) 6 in 756–757 ^{[ 18]} . Linguistic changes are recorded in two Tang historiographies.

The book of Tang of 945 contains the oldest reference to the word "Zhiben," ( Chinese 日本 ) . The Eastern Barbarians section lists both Vogo ( Chinese 倭国 ) and Zhibengo ( Chinese 日本国 ) , which can mean either that the word Zhiben was a synonym for Wo, or that the Japanese did not like the name "Wakoku / Vogo" because of its ugliness, or that the word Nippon called part of Wakoku.

In the 1050 , in the section “Oriental barbarians” there is a part ( Chinese 日本 ) , where details are given.

Japan in ancient times was called Wo-Well. It lies 14,000 li from our capital, southeast of Silla, in the middle of the ocean. To cross it from east to west, it takes five months to travel, and from south to north - three ^[19] .

In this regard, the New Book of Tan says:

In 670, [from Japan] ambassadors arrived at the court to congratulate [China] on the conquest of Goguryeo. At this time, the Japanese, who knew Chinese, hated the name "Wo" and changed it to Nippon. According to the [Japanese] ambassador, this name was chosen because Japan is near the place where the Sun rises. [On the other hand] they say that Nihon was a small country enslaved to Ba, and Ba took its name. Since this ambassador was not honest, doubts remain. [The ambassador was] also boastful, and said that his country was many thousand square meters in size and spread across the ocean in the south and west. In the northeast, he said, the country borders on mountains, beyond which lies a country of hairy people ^[20] .

Subsequent historians called Japan "Zhiben," and "Vo" was only mentioned as an outdated name.

Stela Gwangetho

The earliest mention of “wa” (in Korean - “ve”, 왜) is on the stele of Kwangetho , erected in 414 in honor of the Koguryeo King of Kwangetho . On this stele is the oldest reference to woko , Japanese pirates, and Ve, which was Baekje's military ally in the wars with Goguryeo and Silla . Some researchers believe that “ve” also means the Kai tribal union in the south of the Korean Peninsula. For example, Lee suggests:

If Goguryeo could not destroy Baekje, then she hoped that someone else would do it. That is, this inscription could be wishful thinking. In any case, the word "Ve" meant both the inhabitants of the Japanese islands, and the Koreans from the south of the peninsula, those same Kai who in ancient times owned both regions ^[21]

It is also often believed that Ve were residents of the Japanese archipelago, however, there is no evidence to this effect ^[22] .

The Japanese self-name “va” comes from the Chinese “vo” ( Chinese 倭 ) , this hieroglyph has a number of negative connotations, including “ugly”, “dwarf”, “curved, curved”.

Hieroglyphs 倭 and 和

The Chinese character 倭 contains the key 人 or 亻 “man” and the phonetic “wei” 委 “bend”, representing the grain зер above the woman 女 . After conducting a semantic analysis, Bernhard Karlgren came to the conclusion that the latter means “to bend, bent, painful; fall, throw, throw, send, refuse; delegate; - bend like a woman working with grain ” ^[23] . The oldest written character 倭 is written in the Zhuangshu style, without meeting either in the Jinwen style or the Jiaguen style.

Most of the characters containing the phonetic component 委 are pronounced in putonghua “wei” ^[24] :

• wèi 魏 - character of the name of the kingdom of Wei ;
• wēi 逶 - wriggle, loop;
• wěi 萎 - dry up, fade, dry, get sick, fall into decay;
• wěi 痿 - numb , numb; numb, cramp; atrophy;
• wěi 諉 - shift the blame on others, evade;
• wèi 餧 - give food.

The unusual pronunciation of “vo” can be compared with the following words:

• wō 踒 - stumble, twist the leg; lame;
• wǒ 婑 - used in combination with the “woto” kit. Trad. 媠 媠 , Pinyin : wǒtuó .

The third reading is found in the character 矮 (ǎi), meaning "dwarf, shorty, low; cut back. "

Scientists of the Nara period considered the character 倭, which they used to write the words "Yamato" and "wa", derogatory: graphically it can be read as "bending people." Around 757, Japan officially changed its name to 和 "harmony, peace."

A graphic change from "Japanese dwarfs" 倭 became inevitable. Soon after the Japanese began to spell the word “wa” with this hieroglyph, they understood its meaning as “dwarf”. In a way, they were let down by Chinese writing; the only character to indicate their country was derogatory. The chosen substitution - 和 - had the same Japanese reading as 倭, but, most importantly, had a pleasant meaning. The assertion that Japanese culture is based on “wa”, 和, “harmony” has become a dogma among the Japanese and Japanese ^[25] .

In modern Japanese “wa” 倭 “the old name of Japan” is a variant of the hieroglyph 和, with the exception of a few terms - , wako , Wameu Ruijusho . In contrast, 和 is a frequently occurring component of complex words: “ Japanese cuisine ” ( 和 食 食 食 ё )) , wafuku ( п 和服 ) , waka ( 和 歌 歌 ) , washi ( 和 紙 ) .

Pronunciation

In Chinese, the character 倭 can be pronounced wēi , wǒ and wō . The first two readings are used only in loans from Wenyang . The reading wēi is found in the word “veichi” ( Chinese 倭 遲 ) , “devious, meandering”, also written in the characters ( Chinese. ) And ( Chinese 委蛇 ) . The most ancient preserved use of the character 倭 is in Shi Jing , describes a winding (倭 遲) road. Previously used the word используется «, meaning“ impressive, solid, important, beautiful; winding; complacent". The word wǒ倭 is found in the word whale. trad. 倭 墮 髻 , ex. 倭 堕 髻 , pinyin : wǒduòjì , pall. : vodoji "a female hairstyle with a bun popular in the reign of the Han Dynasty." The third pronunciation, meaning "Japan" is more productive than the rest:

• whale. trad. 漆 漆 , pinyin : wōqī , pall. : Voci " Japanese varnish ";
• whale. trad. 倭刀 , pinyin : wōdāo , pall. : water " Japanese sword ";
• whale. trad. 倭瓜 , pinyin : wōguā , pall. : vogua ("Japanese melon") pumpkin;
• whale. 倭 河馬 , exercise р , pinyin : wōhémǎ , pall. : Wohema " dwarf hippo ";
• whale. trad. 倭 豬 , exercise. 倭 猪 , pinyin : wōzhū , pall. : I am driving a " dwarf pig ";
• whale. trad. 狐猴 狐猴 , pinyin : wōhúhóu , pall. : Woahow “ rat lemurs ”;
• whale. trad. 黑猩猩 黑猩猩 , pinyin : wōheixingxing , pall. : Woheisinsin "pygmy chimpanzee", bonobo .

Reconstruction of the pronunciation of wō in Middle Chinese - --uâ (according to Karlgren), ʼua (according to Zhou Fagao), ʼwa (according to Edward Pulliblanck). Reconstruction for the ancient Chinese language - ʼwâ (Karlgren), ʼwər (Dong Tonghe), ʼwə ^r (Zhou Fagao).

In Japanese, the hieroglyph 倭 has Chinese readings “va” and “ka” ( wō “Japan”, w древ “ancient hairstyle”, wi or i from wēi “meandering; obedient”) and Japaneseized readings of yamato and sitagau “obey, obedient”. The word wō in the meaning of "the old name of Japan" was borrowed in other languages ​​of the synosphere , including Korean ("ve"), Cantonese wai or wo , Taiwanese e .

Etymology

Although the origin of the word "wa" is not clear, in Chinese historical texts there are records of an ancient people inhabiting the Japanese archipelago (possibly Kyushu), called ʼWâ or ʼWər . Carr cites ^{[26] the} most popular variants - from the Japanese pronoun “vaga” ( . が が ) (I, mine) and “vare” ( 我 我 ) (I; myself; you); from the derogatory "dwarf barbarians." It is believed that the main etymological meanings of this word are two: "obeying" and "dwarf".

The first meaning is given in the dictionary of 121 years. The word 倭 is defined there as China. 順 皃 , a humble, obedient look. Graphically, the explanation looks like “a man who bends,” and next is the above quote from Shi Jing. Carr suggests that when they meet the Japanese, the Chinese call them bowers ^[27] ), since it was known that the Japanese bow as a sign of respect ^{[28] [29]} . Koji Nakayama believes that the sign знак means "distant," and 倭 means "separated from the continent."

The second etymology of “ wo ” - “dwarf” - is possibly a cognate with ǎi矮 “dwarf, shorty, low”, wō踒 “bent legs, cramp”, and wò臥 “to lie down, sit down”. The earliest dynastic stories contain a reference to Zhuzhugo ( Chinese 侏儒 - ) , the “land of the pygmies,” south of Japan, probably Okinawa or Ryukyu .

Since the earliest information about the military was based on rumors, Wang Chhenping writes: "Little was known about except that they were polite and obedient" ^[30] .

Lexicography

An article by Michael Carr ^{[31] is} devoted to a lexicographic study of how the Chinese name of Japan turned out to be an insult. It provides an analysis of definitions from 92 dictionaries, demonstrating the problems of identifying offensive racial nicknames. Among the dictionaries are 29 Sino-Chinese, 17 Sino-English, 13 Sino-Western and 33 Sino-Japanese editions. To determine whether the definition of the word “in” has an offensive meaning, Carr divides the definitions into four types, designated by the letters of the Greek alphabet .

• Α = "dwarf; Japanese";
• Β = "submissive; Japanese";
• Γ = " derogatory Japanese";
• Δ = "Japanese."

For example, alpha (A) type definitions include, as simple definitions, like “dwarf country; Japan "(Lushi-hanyin-tsydyan kit. 劉氏 漢英 辭典 , 1978), and more common, as" (1) Dwarf. (2) Previously used to refer to Japan ”(The Modern Chinese-English Dictionary by Lin Yutang, 1972). Examples of beta (B) type definitions are “submissive; Japanese "-" demütig [humble, obedient ], gehorchen [obey; answer] ”(Sino-German Praktisches zeichenlexikon chinesisch-deutsch-japanisch , 1983). Definitions of type (Γ) - “ derogatory Japanese” ( Gooya Dictionary for Beginners , 1964) include litters “disparagingly”, “insultingly”, “arrogantly”. Some definitions of type Γ are limited to sub- items of the type “ Wōnú倭奴 (now derogatory) Japs” (最新 實用 和 英 辭典, 1971). The type of delta (Δ) “Japanese” is the least informative: “obsolete name of Japan” (新 漢英 詞典, 1979).

Carr believes that definitions of type A “dwarf" and B "subordinate" are preferable in terms of providing the reader with etymological information, even if it is offensive; shorthand definitions are not bad for short dictionaries, but adding the “old / archaic name” mark takes up no more space than adding a “derogatory” mark. The definition of the “gamma” type is aimed at not offending the Japanese, but serves a poor service - this approach is comparable to the definition of words like “migrant workers” or “Jew” without indicating their insult ^[32] .

The table below is provided by Carr for comparing the definitions of слова in Chinese dictionaries.

Half of the Sino-Western dictionaries indicate that 倭 also means “dwarf,” and most Sino-Chinese dictionaries are limited to the definition of Δ as “the outdated name of Japan.” A clear reference to racism (A “dwarf") is much more common in Western dictionaries than in Chinese and Sino-Japanese. A more accurate and less offensive version of “submissive” (B) is found only in Sino-Japanese and Sino-German dictionaries. Type Γ is common in European and Japanese dictionaries. A short version of Δ is twice as common in Sino-Chinese dictionaries than in Sino-Japanese, and three times more likely than in Sino-Western.

• The Tradition of Wah People from Wei State History

• Aston, William G. 1924. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to AD 697. Charles E. Tuttle reprint 1972.
• Carr, Michael. 1992. "Wa 倭 Wa 和 Lexicography," International Journal of Lexicography 5.1: 1-30.
• Forke, Alfred , tr. 1907. Lun-hêng, Part 1, Philosophical Essays of Wang Ch'ung . Otto Harrassowitz.
• Karlgren, Bernhard. 1923. Analytic Dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese . Dover Reprint 1974.
• Lee, Kenneth B. 1997. Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix . Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-95823-X OCLC 35637112.
• Lewis, James B. and Amadu Sesay. 2002. Korea and Globalization: Politics, Economics and Culture . Routledge ISBN 0-7007-1512-6 OCLC 46908525 50074837.
• Nakagawa Masako. 2003. The Shan-hai ching and Wo : A Japanese Connection , Sino-Japanese Studies 15: 45–55.
• Tsunoda Ryusaku, tr. 1951. Japan in the Chinese dynastic histories: Later Han through Ming dynasties . Goodrich, Carrington C., ed. South Pasadena: PD and Ione Perkins.
• Wang Zhenping. 2005. Ambassadors from the Islands of Immortals: China-Japan Relations in the Han-Tang Period . University of Hawai'i Press.

In Russian

• Dmitry Suroven . The ancient states of southern China and the ethnogenesis of the Vozhen people
• M.V. Vorobiev . The mystery of the location of the Wajin possessions.

In English

• Unihan data for U + 502D , Unihan Database entry for 倭
• English translation of the Wei Zhi , Koji Nakayama
• Queen Himiko as Recorded in the Wei Chronicle , Wontack Hong
• The Relatedness between the Origin of Japanese and Korean Ethnicity , Jaehoon Lee
• The Chronicles of Wa , Wesley Injerd
• Japan in Chinese and Japanese Historic Accounts , John A. Tucker
• The Early Relations between China and Japan , Jiang Yike

In Japanese

• (Japanese) Wah people (Wajin, Wojen) (inaccessible link) // Nipponik Encyclopedia : in 26 vols. 2nd edition. - Tokyo : Shogakukan , 1994-1997.
• (Japanese) 「三国 志 ・ 魏志」 巻 ３０ 東夷 伝 ・ 倭人 , Chinese text and Japanese translations of the mention of the people of wa in Wei-chi魏志
• (Japanese) 邪 馬 台 國 研究 本 編 , Chinese text and Japanese translations of the mentions of the Wah people in Chinese chronicles
• (jap.) 日本 古代史 参考 史料 漢 ва , Mention of va in 15 Chinese chronicles