Arctic

Flora and fauna

Dwarf shrubs , grasses , grasses , lichens and mosses grow in the Arctic. Low summer temperatures cause a small variety of species and small sizes of plants. In the Arctic, there are no trees , but in the warm part of it there are often shrubs that reach two meters in height, and sedge , mosses and lichens form a thick litter. The Arctic desert - the northernmost of the natural areas - is almost devoid of vegetation; dominated by cellular plants - mosses and lichens, rarely such herbaceous plants as the polar poppy .

The Arctic is a habitat for a number of unique animals: musk ox , wild reindeer , bighorn sheep , polar bears . The herbivorous inhabitants of the tundra include: hare - arctic hare , lemming , musk ox and wild reindeer . They are food for the arctic fox and the wolf . The polar bear is also a predator; it prefers to hunt sea animals from the ice. For cold regions, many species of birds and marine inhabitants are endemic. In addition, wolverines , ermines and long-tailed ground squirrels inhabit the Arctic.

In the polar summer millions of migratory birds nest in the tundra. Seals , walruses , as well as several species of cetaceans inhabit the Arctic seas: baleen whales , narwhals , killer whales and beluga whales .

Climate change threatens many Arctic animals to disappear completely. Polar bears are in the greatest danger, since with a reduction in the area of ​​sea ice, animals are forced to switch to the coast, where their food base is less. For a population of adult males, mortality from hunger can increase from 3–6% to 28–48% if the duration of the summer season increases from 120 to 180 days. In addition, the chances of a female meeting a partner during the breeding season also depend on the area of ​​sea ice and its fragmentation. Males are looking for females in their tracks, and, according to scientists, if the efficiency of searches due to scattering of the population on ice will decrease four times faster than its area, the success of mating will decrease from 99% to 72% ^[3] .

Bacteria

In January 2019, scientists found bacteria resistant to most antibiotics. The resistance of microorganisms appeared due to the blaNDM-gene, which was discovered in 2008 in India ^[4] .

Relief

According to the features of the relief in the Arctic, there are: a shelf with islands of continental origin and adjacent margins of the continents and the Arctic basin. The shelf area is occupied by the marginal seas - the Barents , Kara , Laptev , East Siberian and Chukchi seas. The land relief of the Russian Arctic is predominantly flat; in some places, especially on the islands, it is mountainous. The central part is the Arctic basin, the area of ​​deep-water basins (up to 5527 m ) and submarine ridges.

The highest point of the Arctic is Mount Gunbjörn ( Greenland ).

Features

Features of nature: low radiation balance, close to 0 ° C, average air temperatures of the summer months with negative average annual temperature, the existence of glaciers and permafrost , the prevalence of tundra vegetation and arctic deserts .

The average temperatures of the coldest winter month, January, vary from −2… −4 ° C in the southern part of the Arctic region to −25 ° C in the north of the Barents Sea , west of the Greenland Sea , in the Baffin and Chukchi seas, and from −32 ... −36 ° C; in the Siberian region, in the north of Canada, and in the adjacent part of the Arctic basin up to −45 ... −50 ° C in the central part of Greenland . The minimum temperatures in these areas sometimes drop to −55 ... −60 ° C, only in the Arctic basin do they not fall below −45 ... −50 ° C. When deep cyclones break through, the temperature sometimes rises to −2 ... −10 ° C. The average July temperatures in the Arctic basin are 0 ... -1 ° C ^[2] .

The sea ice extent is about 11 million km² in winter and about 8 million km² in summer.

Natural Resources

The Arctic contains a very large amount of undeveloped energy resources - oil and gas . Oil reserves in the Arctic (both on the shelf and on land) were estimated in 2008 by the US Geological Survey at 90 billion barrels ^[5] . According to the data of British Petroleum , in 2017, around 620 million barrels of oil were consumed annually in the world (based on an average of 1.7 million barrels per day) ^[6] . Thus, given the demand for oil in 2017, the reserves of the Arctic would be enough for another 145 years .

At the same time, the extraction of natural resources in the Arctic is extremely complex and dangerous from an environmental point of view. In the harsh climate of the Arctic, the likelihood of emergencies increases significantly. The ability to eliminate the consequences of an oil spill, as well as its effectiveness, is complicated by numerous storms with high waves, thick fog and multi-meter ice. If the accident occurs during the polar night , which lasts here for several months, then work to eliminate the consequences will have to be carried out in the dark, almost at random. Another danger is icebergs , a collision with which can be fatal for an oil-producing platform . To combat icebergs, it is planned to use firefighters - ships laden with combustible substances (such ships were used in naval battles for arson and the destruction of enemy ships).

Experts are convinced that the consequences of a large oil spill can only be partially eliminated. Thus, retired coast guard admiral Roger Ruf stated: “Spilled oil irreversibly pollutes water. Nowhere in the world is it possible to clear affected water by more than 3, 5 or 10 percent , and even more so in ice. ” ^[7]

For Russia , with its raw materials economy, the Arctic shelf is one of the most promising areas for replenishing hydrocarbon reserves. The head of Gazprom Dobycha Shelf, Alexander Mandel, told reporters that oil production will begin in mid-July 2012. In addition to Gazprom, licenses for the development of oil fields received Rosneft OJSC. Oil and gas resources of the Arctic are also claimed by oil companies Shell, BP, EXXON.

Gazprom Neft was the first to start production on the Arctic shelf: oil was obtained in December 2013 at the Prirazlomnoye field in the Pechora Sea . Mining is conducted from the Prirazlomnaya platform - it is specifically designed to work in the Arctic. The platform is equipped with a "zero discharge" system - all waste, including drilling, is transported to the shore or pumped into a special absorption well. The platform stands at the bottom of the sea (the depth in the area of ​​the field is only 20 meters ), the wells are located inside the base of the platform and are reliably insulated from the environment by 3-meter-high concrete walls, which are covered with heavy-duty clad steel. The first Arctic oil was named Arctic oil (ARCO) and was first shipped from Prirazlomny in April 2014 ^[8] .

Environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace and the World Wide Fund for Nature , are protesting against the development of oil fields in the Arctic. In 2012, the Protect the Arctic international campaign began, which calls on people around the world to sign a demand for a moratorium on oil production in the Arctic.

“The Arctic shelf is a large and to date practically unused reserve of the oil and gas industry of Russia, but without its development it is impossible to solve the tasks of the Energy Strategy of Russia until 2020” ^[9] . Among the largest Russian gas fields are Shtokman , Rusanovskoye and Leningradskoye , located in the western Arctic.

Arctic climate change

The Arctic climate has experienced significant fluctuations over the past 600 years . During this period, no less than three or four significant warmings occurred, quite commensurate both in scale and in duration with the famous “warming of the Arctic” of the first half of the 20th century. Climate fluctuations in the period preceding the epoch of instrumental observations were completely determined by the change in natural factors and, in the first place, the speed of the Earth’s rotation and the character of the atmospheric circulation . Scientists predict an extremely strong warming of the Russian Arctic already in the 30s of the XXI century ^[10] .

Temperature

In general, according to research, the temperature in the Arctic rises twice as fast as in the rest of the world. This can lead to the extinction of many plant and animal species in the region. Warming threatens the existence of the indigenous peoples of the Arctic - their sustenance and way of life are directly dependent on the plant and animal world.

The organization representing the interests of the peoples of the Arctic and the Arctic countries is the Arctic Council .

According to the testimony of American experts, the air temperature in the last winter months was 2-6 degrees Celsius higher than the average throughout the Arctic ^[11] .

Arctic ice

The ice of the Arctic is of great importance for the Earth’s climate system. The ice cap reflects the sun's rays and thus prevents the planet from overheating. In addition, Arctic ice plays a large role in the circulation of water in the oceans .

The total mass of Arctic ice, compared with the level of the 1980s, decreased by 70% ^[12] . In September 2012, according to the Hydrometeorological Center , the area of ​​the ice cap reached its minimum for the entire observation period, reaching 3,346.2 thousand km² . The lowest rates reached the Laptev Sea , East Siberian , Chukchi seas - 65% of the norm. The density of ice has also decreased ^[13] . In 2013–2014, the melting of ice was much slower, reaching only a minimum of 5,000–5,100 thousand km² (compared to 3,346.2 in 2012) ^{[14] [15]} . A slight increase in the mass and area of ​​ice in 2013–2014 should not be considered a change in the trend of the disappearance of the ice cap, but the speed in this trend was much slower than predicted ^[16] . Total ice loss in 2003–2013 was 4.9% ^{[17] [18]} .

It is necessary to take into account that, even before the beginning of satellite observations (1979), very poorly periods were also observed ^[19] , one of which in 1920–1940 also caused discussions about the warming of the Arctic ^[20] .

According to American scientists who have studied climate change in all areas of the Arctic, in recent years, the area of ​​ice cover is rapidly decreasing. As of February 25, 2015, this figure was 14.54 million km². And for the period 1981–2010, the ice area in the Arctic was on average 15.64 million km² ^[11] .

Many experts suggest that in the 21st century, in the summer, most of the Arctic waters will be completely free of ice, and this will open up new prospects for the carriage of goods by sea.

The first representatives of reasonable man ( Homo sapiens ) penetrated the coast of the Arctic Ocean about 30,000 years ago. This is evidenced by the sites of the ancient people " Mammoth Kurya " (in the valley of the river Usa , Republic of Komi ) and " Bereloch " (at the mouth of the river Yana , Yakutia ). The penetration and development of the ancient people of high latitudes significantly increased the adaptive capabilities of Homo sapiens as a species. In the conditions of constant struggle with cold and elements, northern adaptive types of human populations were formed. As a result of such adaptive changes, the melanin gene mutated over time, which led to an improvement in the survival rate of the individual under these conditions. The motivating factors for the mutation were the low intensity of ultraviolet radiation , which is typical of northern regions. The appearance of the mutation is light skin.

The study of human health problems in the high latitudes of the northern hemisphere has now taken shape as a scientific area called “ Arctic medicine ” ^[21] .

Indigenous peoples of the Arctic have preserved the traditional way of life of their ancestors for many centuries. Their specific culture and special worldview, caused by living in extreme climatic conditions, is poorly adapted to the conditions of modern civilization, and cannot be adapted to the requirements of a market economy . The population of the Arctic is more than 400 thousand people ^[22] . As a result of the well-established traditional way of life, people are completely dependent on the Arctic ecosystem for nutrition, living and preserving cultural identity. Despite the fact that the implementation of oil and gas projects brings its benefits to the population, many residents in this connection experience inconvenience and problems ^[23] .

Traditional crafts are hunting , gathering , reindeer herding and fishing . The natural environment is the basis of life for the peoples of the North; therefore, environmental problems are particularly acute for them. The industrial development of the Arctic may lead to the destruction of the original habitat and create the threat of the extinction of the small peoples of the North as independent ethnic groups .

In the period from February 20 to 21, 2018, the Third International Conference “The Arctic: Offshore Projects and Sustainable Development of Regions” was held at the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Russia, which was attended by over 300 experts from various regions of Russia, the USA, Canada, Kuwait, Azerbaijan , Switzerland, Denmark, Argentina and other countries.

For a long time, the Arctic was considered a territory that was not adapted for the life of people ( “dead earth” ), impassable either by water or by land.

In the XI century, Russian navigators went to the seas of the Arctic Ocean . In the 12th - 13th centuries , the islands of Vaigach , Novaya Zemlya were discovered, and at the end of the 15th century - the islands of the Svalbard archipelago , Bear Island . In the first half of the 16th century , the first map of the Arctic Ocean basin appeared, compiled according to D. Gerasimov’s drawing, and the development of the western section of the Northern Sea Route from the Northern Dvina to the Taz Bay in the mouth of the Ob River (the so-called Mangazeysky sea ​​passage) .

K 30-40 The 17th century includes the development of Russian pioneers, Ivan Rebrov, Ilya Perfiliev, Mikhail Stadukhin , the eastern section of the Northern Sea Route - from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Kolyma . Semyon Dezhnev passed by sea from the mouth of the Kolyma to the easternmost point of the mainland and in 1648 opened the strait between Asia and America . ^[24]

As a result of the Great Northern Expedition (1733–1743), the entire Siberian coast of the Arctic Ocean to Cape Big Baranov was investigated, described and mapped.

Since 1874, sailing on steam ships across the Kara Sea at the mouth of the Ob and Yenisei began , which were named Kara expeditions.

Norwegian polar explorer Fridtjof Nansen called the Arctic a “Land of Icy Horror”.

A huge role in the development of the Arctic has played the Northern Sea Route .

Drifting polar stations

Russia is the first country to use the so-called drifting polar stations. Each such station is a complex of station houses installed on a drifting Arctic ice floe, in which expedition members live, and the necessary equipment. For the first time such a cheap and effective method of research in the Arctic was proposed in 1929 by Vladimir Wise , a researcher who worked at the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute . Thanks to the existence of drifting stations, Russian scientists were able to explore the Arctic all year round.

The first drifting expedition called the North Pole was landed at the pole on May 21, 1937.

In September 2005, the North Pole-34 expedition set off to explore the Arctic.

The data obtained during the expeditions expand the knowledge of scientists about the processes occurring in the natural environment of the Central Arctic, and will help explain the causes of global climate change.

On July 24, 2007 the polar expedition “ Arctic-2007 ” started from Murmansk . Its leader was the deputy of the State Duma of the Russian Federation , the special representative of the President of Russia for the International Polar Year, the Hero of the Soviet Union and the famous polar explorer Arthur Chilingarov . Перед участниками экспедиции ставилась задача детально изучить строение дна океана в приполюсном районе, а также провести ряд уникальных научных исследований.

Путь к Северному полюсу проложили флагман российского научного полярного флота « Академик Фёдоров » и атомный ледокол « Россия ». 2 августа в самой северной точке Земли было совершено погружение на глубину до 4200 м на глубоководных обитаемых аппаратах «Мир-1» и «Мир-2» . Во время этого погружения человек впервые достиг дна океана под Северным полюсом. Там командой аппарата «Мир-1» был установлен флаг России , сделанный для долговечности из титанового сплава .

The international status of the Arctic is enshrined in international agreements on the Arctic. The Arctic itself is divided into five sectors of responsibility between Russia , the USA , Norway , Canada and Denmark . However, the exact boundary of the Arctic is not defined. Initially dominated by the sectoral approach, according to which the Arctic is divided between the adjacent circumpolar states, and the North Pole is the border of all interested states. In 1909, Canada declared sovereignty over all the territories between the North Pole and its northern coast ^[25] . In May 1925, Canada formalized its right to its Arctic sector ^[26] . By the decree of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR from 1926, the entire territory from the north pole to the mainland part of the USSR, limited to the meridians, was declared the territory of the USSR ^[27] . Nevertheless, the sectoral approach contained certain legal lacunae , since it determined the legal status of the islands and lands, but not the waters of these sectors. Therefore, in 1982, the Convention on the Law of the Sea was adopted, according to which the water area of ​​the state extends only to the Arctic shelf, while the outer zone is declared international. Russia joined this agreement in 1997 ^[28] . According to the new convention, coastal waters for 12 miles were declared territorial, and a 200-mile zone near the coast was an economic territory. As a result of the adoption of this convention, Russia lost its sovereignty of 1.7 million km ² of its water area ^[29] .

Polar possessions of Russia

The borders of the northern polar possessions of the USSR are determined by a resolution of the Presidium of the USSR Central Executive Committee of April 15, 1926.

The water border then passed from the Kola Peninsula through the North Pole to the Bering Strait .

In 1997, Russia ratified the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea ^[30] . The Convention establishes the same 12 miles of sovereign territorial waters and 200 miles of the economic zone - with free navigation, but exclusive rights to the use of mineral and biological resources. True, any country can claim its national jurisdiction on the seabed and its subsoil (Part VI of the Convention) and beyond 200 miles , if it is proved that the shelf from its banks stretches beyond this distance.

To achieve the rights to the polar possessions, Russia will have to prove that the submarine ridges of Lomonosov and Mendeleev are of continental origin, connected with the territory of Russia. With regard to the Lomonosov Ridge, this is disputed by Denmark , which believes that the ridge is a sunken part of Greenland ^[31] . To collect evidence that the Lomonosov Ridge is a continuation of the polar possessions of the Russian Federation, the Russian side conducted an unprecedented Arctic-2007 expedition in July-August 2007, consisting of surface and underwater parts and ending with the establishment of the Russian flag at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean North Pole Earth.

The head of the Ministry of Nature of the Russian Federation, Sergey Donskoy, said that Russia is waiting for Canada to submit its application to the UN for the extension of the shelf in the Arctic at the end of 2018 - early 2019, after which we can expect a decision on a similar Russian application ^[32] .

Land areas

The land territories of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation are defined according to the presidential decree of the Russian Federation dated May 2, 2014 No. 296 “On land territories of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation” ^[33] . They are listed below:

• Murmansk region (fully).
• Nenets Autonomous District (completely).
• Chukotka Autonomous Okrug (completely).
• Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District (in full).
• Some areas of the north of the Komi Republic :
  • Vorkuta (urban district) .
  • Territories of municipalities "Belomorsky Municipal District", "Loukhsky Municipal District" and "Kemsky Municipal District" (Republic of Karelia).
• Some territories of the north of the Sakha-Yakutia Republic, which were expanded in accordance with the presidential decree of May 13, 2019 N 220 "On Amendments to the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 2, 2014 N 296" On Land Territories of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation " :
  • Allaikhovsky ulus ;
  • Anabarsky ulus ;
  • Bulunsky ulus ;
  • Nizhnekolymsky district ;
  • Ust-Yansky Ulus ;
  • Abyysky ulus;
  • Verkhnekolymsky ulus;
  • Verkhoyansk district;
  • Zhigansky Evenki district;
  • Momsky district;
  • Olenek Evenk National Ulus;
  • Srednekolymsky ulus;
  • Eveno-Bytantaysky national ulus.
• Some areas of the north of the Krasnoyarsk Territory :
  • Norilsk (urban district) ;
  • Taimyr district ;
  • Turukhansky district .
• Some areas of the north of the Arkhangelsk region :
  • Arkhangelsk (urban district) ;
  • Mezensky District ;
  • New Earth ;
  • Novodvinsk (urban district) ;
  • Onega District ;
  • Primorsky District ;
  • Severodvinsk (urban district) .
• The lands and islands located in the Arctic Ocean, specified in the CEC Presidium's decree of April 15, 1926 "On declaring lands and islands located in the Arctic Ocean" and other USSR acts by the territory of the USSR.

A cross-polar air bridge (the shortest route between North America and Asia ) and the Northern Sea Route , the shortest sea route between East Asia and Europe, pass through the Arctic. The strategic transport and industrial hub, integrated into the Northern Sea Route as a transport corridor, is the current port of Arkhangelsk . The capacity of the transport and logistics hub is up to 11.5 million tons / year. The port has multi-cargo terminals operating in round-the-clock / year-round maintenance mode. It has a favorable geographical location and provides direct access to the World Ocean both in the western and in the eastern direction. It has significant reserves of port and access railway capacities, unlike other existing port areas of the North-West region.

The transport strategy of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2030 ^[34] , the Strategy for the development of the sea port infrastructure of Russia up to 2030, the Strategy for the socio-economic development of the North-West Federal District until 2020 ^{[35] [36]} provides for the construction of a deep-water area of the seaport of Arkhangelsk ( GR IPA) ^[36] . The area is planned to be built near the lighthouse on Cape Kuysky, 3 km north-west from the mouth of the Kui River. The area of ​​the deep-water port will be 270 hectares, including 150 hectares of artificial land. It is planned to build an access channel with a length of about 10 km and a width of 160 m. The cost of construction is estimated at 149.8 billion rubles in the prices of the respective years. ^[37] Implementation is planned in two phases ^[38] : 2018–2023 (design, construction, commissioning) and 2026–2028 (infrastructure expansion and access to design capacity) ^[39] . The project management company is ATU “Arkhangelsk” ^[40] , the general director is Sergey Kokin ^[41] .

Among other things, in the territories adjacent to the Arctic there are components of the missile attack warning system of Russia and the United States , as well as interceptor missiles of the United States ( Alaska ) and Russia (the coast of the Arctic Ocean ). In Greenland, there is an airbase Thule .

The Russian nuclear test site is located in the southern part of the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. The main location of the Northern Fleet of the Russian Navy is ZATO Severomorsk of the Murmansk region .

Since 2007, an Arctic trefoil military base has been built on Alexandra Land , the objects of which will be completed with construction in 2016. In 2013, Russia began the reconstruction of a military base on the New Siberian Islands ^[42] ( Boiler House ); in particular, we are talking about the reconstruction of Temp airfield ^[43] . It is also planned to create seven northern airfields located in the cities of Tiksi ( Yakutia ), Naryan-Mar , Alykel ( Taimyr ), Amderma , Anadyr ( Chukotka ), as well as in the village of Rogachevo and at the frontier Nagurskoe ( Franz Josef Land ) ^[44] . In 2007, Canada announced an increase in its presence in the Arctic ( Resolute ) ^[45] .

The Arctic powers regularly conduct military exercises in the region.

• NATO Arctic exercises ICEX ^[46] , since 2003
• In 2013, Russia conducted military exercises using the Peter the Great cruiser and the Eagle and Voronezh nuclear submarines; launches of cruise missiles were conducted ^[47] .
• Canada conducted the Nanook exercises in 2011, ^[48] and, in 2013, Nunalivut, with a landing session on the Cornwallis and Ellef Ringnes islands ^[49] .
• In 2013, the Arctic Challenge exercises were held with the participation of the Air Forces of Finland , Sweden , Great Britain and the USA. The training area covered the Gulf of Bothnia and the Norwegian part of the Barents Sea ^[50] .
• Also in 2013, the United Kingdom conducted the Cetus 13 exercise, where the landing of the landing force under conditions of −30 ° C was tested at the ranges of northern Norway ^[51] .
• March 8–15, 2018 Arctic Edge 18 exercises took place in Alaska , in which one and a half thousand American servicemen from the Air Force, Marines and other units took part ^[52] .

NATO Secretary General] Jens Stoltenberg in 2016 declared the interest of NATO countries in cooperation rather than confrontation in the region ^[53] : “The Arctic is a tough environment, it rewards cooperation, not confrontation. Any dispute should be based on international law. ”

Russia intends to send a set of measures, including military ones, to protect its interests in the Arctic ^{[53] [54]} .

On March 6, 2018, General Director of the Russian Joint-Stock Company RTI, Maxim Kuzyuk announced the creation of a radar for round-the-clock monitoring and aerial reconnaissance of the Arctic in the interests of developing the Northern Sea Route .

NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg on April 4, 2018 announced the Alliance’s intention to build up the naval forces in the Arctic in response to the actions of the Russian side.

An asteroid (1031) is named after the Arctic. The Arctic was discovered in 1924.

• Arctic Council
• Antarctic
• Antarctica
• Arctic 2007
• Greenland
• Tundra

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