Pre -ectant Buddhism

Early buddhism

Written sources

Pali Canon
Agamas
Gandhara

Cathedrals

1st Buddhist Cathedral
2nd Buddhist Cathedral
3rd Buddhist Cathedral
4th Buddhist Cathedral

Schools

Pre -ectant Buddhism
└ Mahasanghika
├ Ekavjavaharika
└ Locottaravada
├ Tea
├ Apara Shayla
└ Uttara Shayla
└ Gokulika
├ Bahusrutia
├ Prajnaptivada
└ Chetyavada
└ Sthaviravada
├ Sarvastivada
├ Waibhashika
├ Sautrantika
└ Mulasarvastivada
├ Vibhajyavada
├ Theravada
├ Mahishasaka
├ Kashyapia
├ Dharmaguptaka
└ Pudgalavada
└ Watsiputria
├ Dharmottaria
├ Bhadraraiya
├ Sammatia
└ Shannagarika

The term " pre-sectarian Buddhism " ( English pre-sectarian Buddhism ) is used by some scholars ^[1] to refer to Buddhism, which existed before the emergence of various schools (or sects) of Buddhism ^[2] . Other terms used to indicate the first period of development of Buddhism are: “early Buddhism” ^[3] ^[4] , “original Buddhism” ^[5] and “Buddhism of the Buddha himself” ^[6] . Some Japanese scholars (such as Nakamura ^[7] and Hirakawa ^[8] ) use the term "early Buddhism" for the first period of Buddhism, and the subsequent period of development of early Buddhist is referred to as "sectarian Buddhism" ^[8] .

Pre-sectarian Buddhism - Buddhism between the first discourse of Gautama Buddha until the first long schism in the Sangha, which occurred (according to most scholars) between the Second Buddhist Cathedral and the Third Buddhist Cathedral ^[9] . However, Professor Hirakawa claims that the first split occurred after the death of King Ashoka ^[10] . Professor Chopin asks the question: was there ever a single Buddhism, which was then divided into sects? ^[eleven]

Pre-sectarian Buddhism is Buddhism that preceded the early Buddhist schools established about a hundred years after Parinirvana Buddha. Most scholars agree that there was a classic canonized collection of texts that was relatively early supported by the community and transmitted ^[12] . It may be, indeed, the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although there is no evidence for this. According to Professor A.K. Warder, there is no reason to believe that the doctrine of early Buddhism was formulated by anyone other than the Buddha and his closest followers. However, Professor Ronald Davidson is not sure that the majority of the Buddhist scriptures that have come down to us are actually the words of the historical Buddha ^[13] ^[14] .

Content

Sources of Pre-Sectarian Buddhism

Information about Buddhism in the period before the emergence of early Buddhist schools is based on the biography of the Buddha and the teachings in the scriptures of Theravadin Pali Canon, and the surviving parts of the scriptures of Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, Mahishasaki, Dharmaguptaki and other schools, most of which are only available in Chinese translation. But some of the individual scriptures found in Nepal are in Sanskrit. Not long ago, Gandhar Buddhist texts were found in Afghanistan . The main content of the texts themselves in these documents are so similar that they are considered different editions of the same text ^[15] . The essence of these separate scriptures may be distorted by the private philosophy of individual schools or inaccurate translations. However, when comparing different editions of these texts (from different Buddhist schools), it is possible to identify and eliminate the most obvious distortions ^[16] .

By comparing various scriptures, one can even reveal some features of early Buddhism (and its surroundings) that traditions themselves have forgotten. ^[17]

Opinions of scientists

The topic of pre -ectan Buddhism was not studied before Western science began to study Buddhism in the 1890s. Both sides - Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists - recognized the authenticity of their canons.

Both currents, Theravada and Mahayana, deviated significantly and evolved from Pre-sectarian Buddhism, but still have roots in it ^[18] ^[19] .

The earliest phase of the scriptures, recognized by almost all scholars (the main exception being Dr. Gregory Chopin), is based on a comparison of the Pali Canon with the Chinese agamas and other surviving parts of other early canons. Some scholars believe that the general crude core of the scriptures ^{[ unknown term ] of} various schools provides a substantially correct picture of the original teachings of the Buddha. This core is defined as the four main Nikai from Sutta Pitaka (Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya and Anguttara Nikaya), together with the main part of the monastic rules, ^[20] Vinaya Pitaki. Scientists also claim that the core of the texts is the most ancient core: verses and phrases that look like the oldest parts of the Sutta Pitaka . ^[21] Another part of the scholars believes that this issue has not been resolved, one way or another. ^[22] This last group includes those scientists who cannot ever learn the Buddha’s teachings, an approach criticized by Warder to be one of “extremely cautious” ". ^[23]

Buddhologists also argue that in “Pre -ectant Buddhism” there were not even fundamental concepts for “Theravada” and “Mahayana” concepts ^[24] .

Buddhism during the lifetime of Shakyamuni Buddha

Pre-sectarian Buddhism was a changing form of Buddhism, the Buddha defined and clarified the rules of proper behavior for monks ^[25] (Vinayu) with the help of such monks as Upali. ^[26] The rules were often amended to include certain (safe) behaviors that were prohibited in the previous version of the rules.

The Order of Pre-Sectarian Buddhist Monks grew from a small unknown order of highly consecrated monks (within a year after reaching nirvana) into a large, well-established and well-known order that needs more formalities and more rules to maintain proper teaching and discipline. ^[27] It was relatively sober ^[28] , and the monks were not supposed to go on public holidays (the Seventh of the Ten Vows) and, as expected, refrain from activities such as games ^[29] and dancing. ^[30] They were also not allowed to use or receive money, the purpose of these rules was to lead a simple, satisfied life.

In the beginning, the monastic order ( Sangha ) did not have any monasteries, but already in the first year the Buddha allowed them after King Bimbisar asked to do so. ^[31] One of the buildings was well furnished and comparable in level with the palace, it was called Migramatupasada. ^[32]

Buddha, as a teacher and the main leader, was the one who decided to create rules that must be followed, ^[33] but the executive power rests with the monastic community as a whole. ^[34] Buddha forbade the monastic community to create their own rules ^[35] and instructed monks to continue to follow his teachings (doctrine and discipline) after his death. ^[36] Thus, he did not appoint a successor, ^[37] ^[38] ^[39] ^[40] who would have legislative power over the Sangha and the monks. He gave the Sangha limited authority to unanimously agree not to follow minor and minor rules. ^[41]

After Parinirvana Buddha

At the first Buddhist Council, the Sangha unanimously agreed to continue to abide by all the rules laid down by the Buddha, to prevent the basic rules (Pacitty or higher) they should be classified as insignificant and thus can be put aside. ^[42]

The second Buddhist cathedral took place 100 years after the parinirvana of the Buddha. He was convened to make decisions on the subject of discipline or Vinaya, and it was decided whether it was allowed to follow the adapted rules, thus not paying attention to the instructions of the Buddha. Adapted rules were integrated into a wider framework of proper procedures, and resented monks refused to admit their guilt. For this reason, a council was convened at which this issue was satisfactorily resolved, so the insulted monks abandoned their old habits. ^[43]

Soon after the second Buddhist cathedral, the first long schism occurred in the Sangha. The second Buddhist cathedral is sometimes considered the cause of these schisms, ^[44] but there is no direct evidence that this is obvious. ^[45] It is often claimed that the first post-splinter groups were Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika. ^[9]

Later Developments of the Initial Doctrine

After the split of the Sangha in various early Buddhist schools and in the Mahayana, various new doctrines, scriptures, and practices arose and were compiled and developed by the monks on issues that were considered important at the time. ^[46] During the time of pre-sectarian Buddhism, these later elaborations of the teachings did not yet appear and were not part of the established teaching and practice of Buddhism.

In later times, disputes between different schools were based on these innovations in teaching, practice, and beliefs, and the monks tried to confirm these innovations in teachings and concepts by referring to old texts ( Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka ). More often than not, the various new Abhidhammas and Mahayana teachings were grounds for controversy between sects.

Compound Scriptures

Some scholars argue that unintentional literalism was a major force for change in the early doctrinal history of Buddhism. This means that the texts were interpreted with too much attention to the accuracy of the words used and not enough for the speaker’s intention to convey the spirit of the text. Some later developments in early Buddhist schools show scholastic literalism, which is a penchant for the words and phrases of early texts (possibly Buddha’s own words). Thus, one can see the differences that he never intended to make. ^[47]

The most authentic and ancient texts of the Pali Canon are recognized only in the first four Nikai from the Sutta Pitaki ^[48] ^[49] .

The following (later) Buddhist scriptures were not created, or were in a very early (minor) stage of development:

Abhidhamma

In the last major division of the canon, Abhidhamma Pitaka had a complicated history. It was not accepted as canon by the Mahasanghik school ^[50] ^[51] and a number of other schools. ^[52] Another school included most of Khuddak-nikai in the Abhidhamma-pitaka. ^[50] Furthermore, the Pali version of the Abhidhamma is a pure Theravada collection of texts, and has little to do with the work of the Abhidhamma recognized by other schools. ^{[53] The} various Abhidhamma philosophies of various early schools do not have doctrine agreements ^[54] and date back to the “Divided Buddhism” period ^[54] (as opposed to Indivisible Buddhism). In the earliest texts of the Pali Canon (Sutta Nipata and part of the jatak), as in the first four (early) nikayas of the Sutta pitaka, there is no mention of the texts of the Abhidhamma pitaka. ^{[55] The} Abhidhamma is also not mentioned in the report of the first Buddhist cathedral that occurred immediately after the death of the Buddha. This report of the first Buddhist cathedral mentions the existence of Vinaya and the five Nikai (From Sutta Pitaka). ^[56] ^[57]

Although the literature of the various Abhidhamma Pitak began as a kind of supplement and commentary on the early teachings in the Sutta Pitaka, it soon led to a new doctrine and textual changes and was at the center of a new form of scientific monastic life. ^{[58] The} various works of the Abhidhamma began to be composed approximately 200 years after the departure of the Buddha. ^[59]

It is traditionally believed (in Theravada Culture) that the Abhidhamme taught Buddha to his late Mother, who lived in the heavens of Tavatims. However, this is rejected by scholars who believe that only a small portion of the Abhidhamma literature was possibly created in a very early form. ^[60] Some schools of Buddhism had important disagreements on the issues of the Abhidhamma, while at the same time having many similarities between Sutta Pitaku and Vinaya Pitaku. Disputes and conflicts between them were thus often on questions of the philosophical origin of the Abhidhamma, and not on matters relating to the actual word and teachings of the Buddha.

One impulse for compiling a new scripture such as the Abhidhamms of various schools, according to some scholars, was that about which the Buddha did not leave clear statements about the ontological status of the world, that really exists. ^[61] Subsequently, later Buddhists themselves determined what exists and what does not (in the scriptures of the Abhidhamma), which led to disagreement.

Parts of Khuddak Nikai

Oliver Abeynayaka said the following about dating various books in Khuddak Nikaya:

'Khuddaka Nikaya can be easily divided into two layers, one of which is early and the other late. The texts of Sutta Nipata, Itivutaki, Dhammapada, Therigatha (Theragatha), Udana and the tales of Jataka belong to the early layer. The texts of Khudakkapatha, Vimanavatthu, Petavatthu, Nydesa, Patisasambidamagge, Adapana, Buddavamsa, and Karyapitaka can be defined as a later layer ' ^[62]

The texts of the dating of the early layer to the second Buddhist cathedral (early 100 years after the parinibbana of the Buddha), and the later layer begins with the second cathedral, which means that they are certainly later additions to the Sutta Pitaka, and that they may not have been the original teachings of the Buddha, but were later compiled by students.

The following Khudakka Nikai books can be seen as later additions:

Khuddakapatha ,
Vimanavatthu
Petavatthu ,
Nydes ,
Patisambhidamagga ,
Apadana
Buddhavamsa
Charitapaka .

And the following are included in the Burmese canon:

Milindapanha ,
Nettippakarana ,
Petakopades .

“Dhammapada” took shape much later than Buddha, it uses different author's styles, different periods and social layers ^[63] .

The original jatak verses are recognized as one of the earliest parts of the Canon, ^[55] but the accompanying (and more well-known) jatak stories are pure comments, obviously a late addition.

Parivara

Parivara , the last book of the Vinaya Pitaka , is a later addition to the Vinaya Pitaka .. ^[64]

Other late works

All Mahayana literature (Mahayana Sutras). ^[65]
All commentary work (Atthakatha) of Theravada and other early Buddhist schools.

Recently introduced concepts

Some Buddhist concepts that did not exist during pre -ectan Buddhism:

The concept of "development in pairs" or paramit. Ten pairs are described in Theravada texts of late origin, ^[66] ^[67] while (Mahayana) paramites are found in Mahayana sutras, such as Dashabhumika-sutra and Shurangama-sutra, as well as of late origin.
The concept of bodhisattva vows, which can only be found in the Mahayana sutras ..

Notes

↑ for example: ... stressed that the written canon in Buddhism is sectarian from the outset, and that presectarian Buddhism must be deduced from the writings as they now exist). Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, Leon Kurvitz, 1976, Columbia University Press (quote via Google Scholar search-engine)
↑ sectsandsectarianism - Conclusion
↑ The Earliest Buddhism, '' How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal , 1997, p. 11 −12
↑ It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism ... the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. JW De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism , in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25
↑ a reconstruction of the original Buddhism presupposed by the traditions of the different schools known to us. AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition.
↑ This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period "before the schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, AK Warder , Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition.
↑ Indian Buddhism , Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal, Delhi, 1987, 1989, table of contents
↑ ¹ ² History of Indian Buddhism , volume 1, Shinjūsha, Tokyo, 1974, English translation of Hawai'i University Press, Honolulu, 1990,
↑ ¹ ² Virtually all later sources agree that the first schism within the early Buddhist community occurred with the separation of the Mahasamghika school, or "those of the great community," from the remaining monks referred to as Sthaviras, or the „elders.“ , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 502
↑ History of Indian Buddhism , volume 1, Shinjūsha, Tokyo, 1974, English translation Hawai'i University Press, Honolulu, 1990, page 94: Thus serious disputes arose within the early Buddhist order's monks before Aśoka's reign, but the order did not actually split into schools until after Aśoka's death.
↑ Journal of the Pali Text Society , volume XVI, page 105: ... almost everything “church historians” and sociologists have discovered: if uniformity is ever achieved it is achieved over more or less long periods of time through a complex process ... that works on originally discrete and competing groups and voices.
↑ Prof. Ronald Davidson states, “most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed) that a relatively early community (disputed) maintained and transmitted.” Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism . pg 147. Columbia University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-231-12618-2 .
↑ It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as' existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers, AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, inside flap.
↑ Prof. Ronald Davidson states, “we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha '“ Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism . pg 147. Columbia University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-231-12618-2 .
↑ '' When we examine the Tripitakas of the eighteen schools, so far as they are extant, we find an agreement which is substantial, though not complete. Even the most conservative of the early schools seem to have added new texts to their collections. However, there is a central body of sutras (dialogues), in four groups, which is so similar in all known versions that we must accept these as so many recensions of the same original texts. These make up the greater part of the Sutra Pitaka. '' AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, p.5
↑ On the basis of the available sources it is possible to reconstruct a fairly reliable biography of the man who was to become the Buddha. The sources are the canonical texts of the Theravada, the Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, and the Dharmaguptaka traditions. MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 82; however, some scholars hold a diametrically opposed view: we know next to nothing about the Buddha as a person , Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, Routledge, London, 1988, page 20
↑ This proves that 'the earliest Buddhism' has interesting features which we can uncover but which the later Buddhist tradition had forgotten about '', How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 12
↑ Stepanyants M. T. Philosophy of Buddhism; encyclopedia. IF RAS. 2011 Art. S. P. Pakhomova "In Western Buddhism of the XIX century. and until the 1930s, the prevailing opinion was that Khinayana is real, true Buddhism, while Mahayana is its distorted variety, but as a result of closer acquaintance with Mahayana sources, this opinion was revised ”
↑ Dhammapada: Translation from Pali, introduction and commentary by V. N. Toporov “Even southern Buddhism, which incomparably more accurately reflects the teachings of the Buddha, as shown by studies of recent decades, has largely departed from original Buddhism; the difference between northern Buddhism (Mahayana) and southern Buddhism (Hinayana) only in pace and degree of evolution ”
↑ I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. By 'the main edifice' I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules , Gombrich, loc. cit.
↑ See Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, originally published in Japan, 1980, reprinted by Motilal Vanarsidass, Delhi, for one such theory: it has been made clear that some poem (Gāthā) portions and some phrases represent earlier layers ... Based upon these portions of the scriptures we can construe aspects of original Buddhism ... Buddhism as appears in earlier portions of the scriptures is fairly different from what is explained by many scholars as earlier Buddhism or primitive Buddhism, page 57
↑ The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct , Lopez, Buddhism in Practice, Princeton University Press , 1995, page 4
↑ '' in the name of that extreme caution which some suppose to be the hallmark of the sound academic, some scholars have claimed that we do not know what the Buddha taught and cannot now find out. '' AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999 , 3rd edition, preface to 1st edition.
↑ Lysenko V.G. Early Buddhism: Religion and Philosophy. Tutorial. IF RAS. 2003 ISBN 5-201-02123-9 “For example, they believe (K. R. Norman, Schmid-Thausen and others) that the doctrine of the four noble truths is an addition, albeit relatively early, to the oldest version of the“ biography “Buddha. The assumption that the core of Buddha’s teachings, which is preserved in all areas of Buddhism, is a product of late systematization (this was said at the beginning of the 20th century by C. Rhys-Davids and S. Schaer), forces scientists to seriously analyze all texts of the Pali canon considered "ancient". This work is far from complete. Anticipating its results, it is safe to say that the “historical” teaching of the Buddha, reconstructed from the most ancient parts of the Pali canon, will be completely different than the teaching that has become the subject of faith and knowledge of many generations of Buddhists in many countries. It will have neither the doctrine of non-atman (the absence of an unchanging soul), nor the concept of pratya-sa-mutpad (“interdependent origin”), nor the “octal path”, nor perhaps even four noble truths ”
↑ the Buddha did not set out a full code at once. Instead, he formulated rules one at a time, in response to events. , Introduction: Dhamma-Vinaya, The Buddhist Monastic Code I, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 1994.
↑ the Buddha speaks in high praise of Ven. Upali, the foremost of his bhikkhu disciples in terms of his knowledge of Vinaya, who was responsible for teaching the rules to the other bhikkhus and who was largely responsible for the shape of the Vinaya as we now have it. , Introduction: Dhamma-Vinaya, The Buddhist Monastic Code I, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 1994.
↑ But when the Community has become large, ... possesses great material gains ... great status ... has a large body of learning ... is long-standing, then there are cases where the conditions that offer a foothold for the effluents arise in the Community, and the Teacher then lays down a training rule for his disciples so as to counteract those very conditions ... , Buddha, in the Bhaddali Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya 65. quoted in: Introduction: Dhamma Vinaya, Buddhist Monastic Code I, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 1996
↑ There are three things, O Bhikkhus, which when they characterize a Bhikkhu, the Sangha, if it likes, should carry out the Act of Banishment against him; (that is to say), when he is characterized by frivolity of action - when he is characterized by frivolity of speech - when he is characterized by frivolity both of action and of speech. These are the three things, O Bhikkhus (& c., As before, down to) against him. Chapter 14, First Khandhaka, Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka.
↑ for example: Pacittiya 53 of Theravadin Patimokkha
↑ for a list of various unacceptable kinds of behavior for monks (including dancing), see Chapter 13, First Khandhaka, Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka
↑ (Vin.i.39f)
↑ see DhA.i.413
↑ and the Teacher then lays down a training rule for his disciples so as to counteract those very conditions ... , Buddha, in the Bhaddali Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya 65.
↑ If, O Bhikkhus, an act is lawful and performed by a complete congregation - such an act, O Bhikkhus, is unobjectionable and valid on account of its lawfulness and of the completeness (of the congregation). Such an act, O Bhikkhus, ought to be performed, and such an act is allowed by me. 'Therefore, O Bhikkhus, you ought to train yourselves thus: “Lawful acts which are performed by complete congregations - such acts will we perform.” - Buddha, concerning decisions made by the Sangha, which should be made with every monk present ( or having sent his consent), and according to the instructions or rules laid down by Buddha (lawfulness). Chapter 2, 9th Khandhaka, Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka
↑ see the account of Upasena, who was praised by Buddha after defying a pacittiya offence newly made by the local Sangha: Vin.iii.230ff
↑ "Ānanda, it may be that you would think: 'Gone is the Teacher's word! We have no teacher. ' It should not be seen thus, Ānanda, for the Dhamma [the Teaching] and the Vinaya [the Discipline] that I have taught and explained to you, will, at my passing, be your teacher ... , Buddha, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Digha Nikaya sixteen
↑ Not even to Sariputta or Moggallana would I hand over the Order , Buddha, Vin.ii.188
↑ Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, Page 39-40.
↑ Pali Dictionary of Proper Names, by Malalasekera, entry on 'Vassakara'.
↑ An original source can be found, amongst others, in the Gopaka Moggallána Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta Pitaka).
↑ Ānanda, after my passing, the order may, if it wishes, abrogate the lesser and minor rules. Buddha, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Digha Nikaya 16
↑ If the time seems appropriate to the Sangha, not ordaining what has not been ordained, and not revoking what has been ordained, let it take upon itself and ever direct itself in the precepts according as they have been laid down. This is the resolution. Maha Kassapa, during the First Buddhist Council at Rajagaha, 11th Khandhaka of the Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka.
↑ Twelfth Khandaka, Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka
↑ The Mahasamghika school is believed to have emerged from the first major schism in the Buddhist order, at a council held in the fourth century BCE, more than a century after Gautama's death. The name, from mahasamgha, "great (er) community," supposedly reflects the Mahasamghikas' superior numbers, the Sthaviras being the minority party to the dispute. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 490
↑ the actual circumstances for the first schism remain obscure and tied to other roughly contemporaneous events that later traditions connect with possibly three additional early councils. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 502
↑ By several centuries after the death of the Buddha, the itinerant mendicants following his way had formed settled communities and had changed irrevocably their received methods of both teaching and praxis. These changes were inevitable, a consequence of the growth and geographic dispersion of the practicing communities. Confronted with new challenges and opportunities in an increasingly organized institutional setting, monks expanded and elaborated both doctrine and disciplinary codes, created new textual genres, developed new forms of religious praxis, and eventually divided into numerous sects or schools. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 501
↑ '' I would also argue that unintentional literalism has been a major force for change in the early doctrinal history of Buddhism. Texts have been interpreted with too much attention to the precise words used and not enough to the speaker's intention, the spirit of the text. In particular I see in some doctrinal developments what I call scholastic literalism, which is a tendency to take the words and phrases of earlier texts (maybe the Buddha's own words) in such a way as to read in distinctions which it was never intended to make . '' How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 21-22
↑ Stepanyants M.T. Philosophy of buddhism; encyclopedia. IF RAS. 2011 Art. VC. Shokhin "There is every reason to believe that the first four Nikita Sutta-pitaki, starting with Digh-nikai, were collected at the same time ... Finally, historical prototypes of individual dialogues of the Sutta-pitaki may well go back to the era of the life of Buddha himself ... Sutta-pitaka , the oldest and main part of Tipitaka, consists of five large collections of texts (niches), of which the first four are thematically more or less homogeneous (exposition by the Buddha, but sometimes by his students of individual subjects of Buddhist teachings - the Dhamma), and the latter is a collection of diverse aterialov united later ... Khuddaka Nikaya ( "Housing Quick Guides") includes a variety of material, which the compilers Tipitaki wanted to canonize, but which is quite heterogeneous in origin and combined into 15 different genres and text volume groups ... "
↑ Dhammapada: Translation from Pali, introduction and comments by V.N. Toporova “It is the Sutta-pitaka that represents in its fullest form the“ Doctrine ”- dhamma ... A somewhat special position in comparison with the four previous meetings is the last, fifth of the Sutta-pitaka - Khuddaka-nikaya (“ The Collection of Short Teachings ”). the composition includes masterpieces of Buddhist prose and poetry, which are unparalleled in the whole Tipitaka. The fact that the final design of this "collection" refers to the most recent period in the creation of the Canon seems quite obvious: in addition to a number of internal data, this is also evidenced by great volume and significantly different composition of Khuddak-nikai in Ceylon, Burma or Siam ... "
↑ ¹ ² “Abhidhamma Pitaka.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.
↑ Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, 1978, page 58
↑ several schools rejected the authority of abhidharma and claimed that abhidharma treatises were composed by fallible, human teachers. in: Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004), page 2. (A similar statement can be found on pages 112 and 756.)
↑ “Buddhism.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.
↑ ¹ ² Kanai Lal Hazra, Pali Language and Literature - A Systematic Survey and Historical Survey, 1994, Vol. 1, page 415
↑ ¹ ² Kanai Lal Hazra, Pali Language and Literature - A Systematic Survey and Historical Survey, 1994, Vol. 1, page 412
↑ IB Horner, Book of the Discipline, Volume 5, page 398
↑ The Mahisasaka Account of the First Council mentions the four agamas here. see http://santifm1.0.googlepages.com/thefirstcouncil(mahisasakaversion) (link not available)
↑ Although begun as a pragmatic method of elaborating the received teachings, this scholastic enterprise soon led to new doctrinal and textual developments and became the focus of a new form of scholarly monastic life. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 1
↑ Independent abhidharma treatises were composed over a period of at least seven hundred years (ca. third or second centuries BCE to fifth century CE). , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 2
↑ These similarities (between the Abhidhammas of the various schools) suggest either contact among the groups who composed and transmitted these texts, or a common ground of doctrinal exegesis and even textual material predating the emergence of the separate schools. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 2
↑ '' If I am right in thinking that the Buddha left no clear statement about the ontological status of the world - about what 'really' exists - this would explain how later Buddhists could disagree about this question. '' How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 34
↑ A textual and Historical Analysis of the Khuddaka Nikaya - Oliver Abeynayake Ph.D. Colombo, First Edition - 1984, p. 113.
↑ " Stepanyants MT Philosophy of Buddhism; Encyclopedia. IF RAS. 2011 St. A.V. Paribka " Dhammapada - a collection of poetic sayings attributed to Buddha Shakyamuni, collected and ordered long after his death. There are many editions. The most famous in the West, Pali, consists of 26 chapters, 423 stanzas. In separate stanzas, the techniques of all three schools of ancient Indian poetry are observed: hieratic with anagrams and riddles, epic with formulas and folk ... "
↑ This work (the Parivara) is in fact a very much later composition, and probably the work of a Ceylonese Thera. from: Book of the Discipline , volume VI, page ix (translators' introduction)
↑ would throw the earliest phase of this literature (the Mahayana Sutras) back to about the beginning of the common era . , Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 493
↑ Theravada Buddhism, in texts such as Cariyapitaka , Buddhavamsa , and Dhammapadatthakatha , postulates the following ten perfections , Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 632
↑ 'It is evident that the Hinayanists, either to popularize their religion or to interest the laity more in it, incorporated in their doctrines the conception of Bodhisattva and the practice of paramitas. This was effected by the production of new literature: the Jatakas and Avadanas. ' Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, p. 251. The term 'Semi-Mahayana' occurs here as a subtitle.

Literature

Encyclopedia of Buddhism. - Macmillan, 2004.
Thanissaro, Bhikkhu. online The Buddhist Monastic Code I]. - 1996. Archived April 11, 2005 on the Wayback Machine
Thanissaro, Bhikkhu. The Buddhist Monastic Code II. - 2002.

Links

Sects & Sectarianism: The origins of Buddhist Schools (2006) , by Ven. Sujato (downloadable PDF). Sujato suggests the following fourfold scheme: Integrated Pre-sectarian Buddhism (0-100 AN [After-Nibbana]); Disintegrating Pre-sectarian Buddhism (100-200 AN); Emerging Sectarian Buddhism (200-300 AN); and, Sectarian Buddhism (300+ AN).

[1] r example: ... stressed that the written canon in Buddhism is sectarian from the outset, and that presectarian Buddhism must be deduced from the writings as they now exist). Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, Leon Kurvitz, 1976, Columbia University Press (quote via Google Scholar search-engine)

[2] sectsandsectarianism - Conclusion

[3] The Earliest Buddhism, '' How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal , 1997, p. 11 −12

[4] It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism ... the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. JW De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism , in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25

[5] reconstruction of the original Buddhism presupposed by the traditions of the different schools known to us. AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition.

[6] This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period "before the schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, AK Warder , Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition.

[7] Indian Buddhism , Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal, Delhi, 1987, 1989, table of contents

[Indian_Buddhism_1974-8] ¹ ² History of Indian Buddhism , volume 1, Shinjūsha, Tokyo, 1974, English translation of Hawai'i University Press, Honolulu, 1990,

[Sthaviras_2004,_page_502-9] ¹ ² Virtually all later sources agree that the first schism within the early Buddhist community occurred with the separation of the Mahasamghika school, or "those of the great community," from the remaining monks referred to as Sthaviras, or the „elders.“ , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 502

[10] History of Indian Buddhism , volume 1, Shinjūsha, Tokyo, 1974, English translation Hawai'i University Press, Honolulu, 1990, page 94: Thus serious disputes arose within the early Buddhist order's monks before Aśoka's reign, but the order did not actually split into schools until after Aśoka's death.

[11] Journal of the Pali Text Society , volume XVI, page 105: ... almost everything “church historians” and sociologists have discovered: if uniformity is ever achieved it is achieved over more or less long periods of time through a complex process ... that works on originally discrete and competing groups and voices.

[12] Prof. Ronald Davidson states, “most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed) that a relatively early community (disputed) maintained and transmitted.” Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism . pg 147. Columbia University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-231-12618-2 .

[13] It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as' existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers, AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, inside flap.

[14] Prof. Ronald Davidson states, “we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha '“ Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism . pg 147. Columbia University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-231-12618-2 .

[15] '' When we examine the Tripitakas of the eighteen schools, so far as they are extant, we find an agreement which is substantial, though not complete. Even the most conservative of the early schools seem to have added new texts to their collections. However, there is a central body of sutras (dialogues), in four groups, which is so similar in all known versions that we must accept these as so many recensions of the same original texts. These make up the greater part of the Sutra Pitaka. '' AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, p.5

[16] On the basis of the available sources it is possible to reconstruct a fairly reliable biography of the man who was to become the Buddha. The sources are the canonical texts of the Theravada, the Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, and the Dharmaguptaka traditions. MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 82; however, some scholars hold a diametrically opposed view: we know next to nothing about the Buddha as a person , Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, Routledge, London, 1988, page 20

[17] This proves that 'the earliest Buddhism' has interesting features which we can uncover but which the later Buddhist tradition had forgotten about '', How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 12

[18] Stepanyants M. T. Philosophy of Buddhism; encyclopedia. IF RAS. 2011 Art. S. P. Pakhomova "In Western Buddhism of the XIX century. and until the 1930s, the prevailing opinion was that Khinayana is real, true Buddhism, while Mahayana is its distorted variety, but as a result of closer acquaintance with Mahayana sources, this opinion was revised ”

[19] Dhammapada: Translation from Pali, introduction and commentary by V. N. Toporov “Even southern Buddhism, which incomparably more accurately reflects the teachings of the Buddha, as shown by studies of recent decades, has largely departed from original Buddhism; the difference between northern Buddhism (Mahayana) and southern Buddhism (Hinayana) only in pace and degree of evolution ”

[20] I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. By 'the main edifice' I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules , Gombrich, loc. cit.

[21] See Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, originally published in Japan, 1980, reprinted by Motilal Vanarsidass, Delhi, for one such theory: it has been made clear that some poem (Gāthā) portions and some phrases represent earlier layers ... Based upon these portions of the scriptures we can construe aspects of original Buddhism ... Buddhism as appears in earlier portions of the scriptures is fairly different from what is explained by many scholars as earlier Buddhism or primitive Buddhism, page 57

[22] The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct , Lopez, Buddhism in Practice, Princeton University Press , 1995, page 4

[23] '' in the name of that extreme caution which some suppose to be the hallmark of the sound academic, some scholars have claimed that we do not know what the Buddha taught and cannot now find out. '' AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999 , 3rd edition, preface to 1st edition.

[24] Lysenko V.G. Early Buddhism: Religion and Philosophy. Tutorial. IF RAS. 2003 ISBN 5-201-02123-9 “For example, they believe (K. R. Norman, Schmid-Thausen and others) that the doctrine of the four noble truths is an addition, albeit relatively early, to the oldest version of the“ biography “Buddha. The assumption that the core of Buddha’s teachings, which is preserved in all areas of Buddhism, is a product of late systematization (this was said at the beginning of the 20th century by C. Rhys-Davids and S. Schaer), forces scientists to seriously analyze all texts of the Pali canon considered "ancient". This work is far from complete. Anticipating its results, it is safe to say that the “historical” teaching of the Buddha, reconstructed from the most ancient parts of the Pali canon, will be completely different than the teaching that has become the subject of faith and knowledge of many generations of Buddhists in many countries. It will have neither the doctrine of non-atman (the absence of an unchanging soul), nor the concept of pratya-sa-mutpad (“interdependent origin”), nor the “octal path”, nor perhaps even four noble truths ”

[25] the Buddha did not set out a full code at once. Instead, he formulated rules one at a time, in response to events. , Introduction: Dhamma-Vinaya, The Buddhist Monastic Code I, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 1994.

[26] the Buddha speaks in high praise of Ven. Upali, the foremost of his bhikkhu disciples in terms of his knowledge of Vinaya, who was responsible for teaching the rules to the other bhikkhus and who was largely responsible for the shape of the Vinaya as we now have it. , Introduction: Dhamma-Vinaya, The Buddhist Monastic Code I, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 1994.

[27] But when the Community has become large, ... possesses great material gains ... great status ... has a large body of learning ... is long-standing, then there are cases where the conditions that offer a foothold for the effluents arise in the Community, and the Teacher then lays down a training rule for his disciples so as to counteract those very conditions ... , Buddha, in the Bhaddali Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya 65. quoted in: Introduction: Dhamma Vinaya, Buddhist Monastic Code I, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 1996

[28] There are three things, O Bhikkhus, which when they characterize a Bhikkhu, the Sangha, if it likes, should carry out the Act of Banishment against him; (that is to say), when he is characterized by frivolity of action - when he is characterized by frivolity of speech - when he is characterized by frivolity both of action and of speech. These are the three things, O Bhikkhus (& c., As before, down to) against him. Chapter 14, First Khandhaka, Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka.

[29] r example: Pacittiya 53 of Theravadin Patimokkha

[30] r a list of various unacceptable kinds of behavior for monks (including dancing), see Chapter 13, First Khandhaka, Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka

[31] (Vin.i.39f)

[32] see DhA.i.413

[33] and the Teacher then lays down a training rule for his disciples so as to counteract those very conditions ... , Buddha, in the Bhaddali Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya 65.

[34] If, O Bhikkhus, an act is lawful and performed by a complete congregation - such an act, O Bhikkhus, is unobjectionable and valid on account of its lawfulness and of the completeness (of the congregation). Such an act, O Bhikkhus, ought to be performed, and such an act is allowed by me. 'Therefore, O Bhikkhus, you ought to train yourselves thus: “Lawful acts which are performed by complete congregations - such acts will we perform.” - Buddha, concerning decisions made by the Sangha, which should be made with every monk present ( or having sent his consent), and according to the instructions or rules laid down by Buddha (lawfulness). Chapter 2, 9th Khandhaka, Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka

[35] see the account of Upasena, who was praised by Buddha after defying a pacittiya offence newly made by the local Sangha: Vin.iii.230ff

[36] "Ānanda, it may be that you would think: 'Gone is the Teacher's word! We have no teacher. ' It should not be seen thus, Ānanda, for the Dhamma [the Teaching] and the Vinaya [the Discipline] that I have taught and explained to you, will, at my passing, be your teacher ... , Buddha, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Digha Nikaya sixteen

[37] Not even to Sariputta or Moggallana would I hand over the Order , Buddha, Vin.ii.188

[38] Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, Page 39-40.

[39] Pali Dictionary of Proper Names, by Malalasekera, entry on 'Vassakara'.

[40] An original source can be found, amongst others, in the Gopaka Moggallána Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta Pitaka).

[41] Ānanda, after my passing, the order may, if it wishes, abrogate the lesser and minor rules. Buddha, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Digha Nikaya 16

[42] If the time seems appropriate to the Sangha, not ordaining what has not been ordained, and not revoking what has been ordained, let it take upon itself and ever direct itself in the precepts according as they have been laid down. This is the resolution. Maha Kassapa, during the First Buddhist Council at Rajagaha, 11th Khandhaka of the Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka.

[43] Twelfth Khandaka, Cullavagga, Vinaya Pitaka

[44] The Mahasamghika school is believed to have emerged from the first major schism in the Buddhist order, at a council held in the fourth century BCE, more than a century after Gautama's death. The name, from mahasamgha, "great (er) community," supposedly reflects the Mahasamghikas' superior numbers, the Sthaviras being the minority party to the dispute. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 490

[45] the actual circumstances for the first schism remain obscure and tied to other roughly contemporaneous events that later traditions connect with possibly three additional early councils. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 502

[46] By several centuries after the death of the Buddha, the itinerant mendicants following his way had formed settled communities and had changed irrevocably their received methods of both teaching and praxis. These changes were inevitable, a consequence of the growth and geographic dispersion of the practicing communities. Confronted with new challenges and opportunities in an increasingly organized institutional setting, monks expanded and elaborated both doctrine and disciplinary codes, created new textual genres, developed new forms of religious praxis, and eventually divided into numerous sects or schools. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 501

[47] '' I would also argue that unintentional literalism has been a major force for change in the early doctrinal history of Buddhism. Texts have been interpreted with too much attention to the precise words used and not enough to the speaker's intention, the spirit of the text. In particular I see in some doctrinal developments what I call scholastic literalism, which is a tendency to take the words and phrases of earlier texts (maybe the Buddha's own words) in such a way as to read in distinctions which it was never intended to make . '' How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 21-22

[48] Stepanyants M.T. Philosophy of buddhism; encyclopedia. IF RAS. 2011 Art. VC. Shokhin "There is every reason to believe that the first four Nikita Sutta-pitaki, starting with Digh-nikai, were collected at the same time ... Finally, historical prototypes of individual dialogues of the Sutta-pitaki may well go back to the era of the life of Buddha himself ... Sutta-pitaka , the oldest and main part of Tipitaka, consists of five large collections of texts (niches), of which the first four are thematically more or less homogeneous (exposition by the Buddha, but sometimes by his students of individual subjects of Buddhist teachings - the Dhamma), and the latter is a collection of diverse aterialov united later ... Khuddaka Nikaya ( "Housing Quick Guides") includes a variety of material, which the compilers Tipitaki wanted to canonize, but which is quite heterogeneous in origin and combined into 15 different genres and text volume groups ... "

[49] Dhammapada: Translation from Pali, introduction and comments by V.N. Toporova “It is the Sutta-pitaka that represents in its fullest form the“ Doctrine ”- dhamma ... A somewhat special position in comparison with the four previous meetings is the last, fifth of the Sutta-pitaka - Khuddaka-nikaya (“ The Collection of Short Teachings ”). the composition includes masterpieces of Buddhist prose and poetry, which are unparalleled in the whole Tipitaka. The fact that the final design of this "collection" refers to the most recent period in the creation of the Canon seems quite obvious: in addition to a number of internal data, this is also evidenced by great volume and significantly different composition of Khuddak-nikai in Ceylon, Burma or Siam ... "

[Abhidhamma_Pitaka_2008-50] ¹ ² “Abhidhamma Pitaka.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.

[51] Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, 1978, page 58

[52] several schools rejected the authority of abhidharma and claimed that abhidharma treatises were composed by fallible, human teachers. in: Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004), page 2. (A similar statement can be found on pages 112 and 756.)

[53] “Buddhism.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.

[Kanai_Lal_Hazra_1994,_page_415-54] ¹ ² Kanai Lal Hazra, Pali Language and Literature - A Systematic Survey and Historical Survey, 1994, Vol. 1, page 415

[Kanai_Lal_Hazra_1994,_page_412-55] ¹ ² Kanai Lal Hazra, Pali Language and Literature - A Systematic Survey and Historical Survey, 1994, Vol. 1, page 412

[56] IB Horner, Book of the Discipline, Volume 5, page 398

[57] The Mahisasaka Account of the First Council mentions the four agamas here. see http://santifm1.0.googlepages.com/thefirstcouncil(mahisasakaversion) (link not available)

[58] Although begun as a pragmatic method of elaborating the received teachings, this scholastic enterprise soon led to new doctrinal and textual developments and became the focus of a new form of scholarly monastic life. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 1

[59] Independent abhidharma treatises were composed over a period of at least seven hundred years (ca. third or second centuries BCE to fifth century CE). , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 2

[60] These similarities (between the Abhidhammas of the various schools) suggest either contact among the groups who composed and transmitted these texts, or a common ground of doctrinal exegesis and even textual material predating the emergence of the separate schools. , MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 2

[61] '' If I am right in thinking that the Buddha left no clear statement about the ontological status of the world - about what 'really' exists - this would explain how later Buddhists could disagree about this question. '' How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 34

[62] A textual and Historical Analysis of the Khuddaka Nikaya - Oliver Abeynayake Ph.D. Colombo, First Edition - 1984, p. 113.

[63] " Stepanyants MT Philosophy of Buddhism; Encyclopedia. IF RAS. 2011 St. A.V. Paribka " Dhammapada - a collection of poetic sayings attributed to Buddha Shakyamuni, collected and ordered long after his death. There are many editions. The most famous in the West, Pali, consists of 26 chapters, 423 stanzas. In separate stanzas, the techniques of all three schools of ancient Indian poetry are observed: hieratic with anagrams and riddles, epic with formulas and folk ... "

[64] This work (the Parivara) is in fact a very much later composition, and probably the work of a Ceylonese Thera. from: Book of the Discipline , volume VI, page ix (translators' introduction)

[65] would throw the earliest phase of this literature (the Mahayana Sutras) back to about the beginning of the common era . , Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 493

[66] Theravada Buddhism, in texts such as Cariyapitaka , Buddhavamsa , and Dhammapadatthakatha , postulates the following ten perfections , Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 632

[67] 'It is evident that the Hinayanists, either to popularize their religion or to interest the laity more in it, incorporated in their doctrines the conception of Bodhisattva and the practice of paramitas. This was effected by the production of new literature: the Jatakas and Avadanas. ' Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, p. 251. The term 'Semi-Mahayana' occurs here as a subtitle.