Tuscany history

Stone Age

The earliest evidence of human presence on the territory of modern Tuscany dates back to the Lower Paleolithic era . The most ancient person living here is Homo Heidelbergensis , whose stone tools were discovered by archaeologists in large numbers in Valle dell'Arno and the coastal region of Livorno. ^[1] Traces of his presence were also found in Versilia , Garfagnan and Lunigian . ^[one]

During the Middle Paleolithic, the territory of Tuscany was inhabited by representatives of the species Homo neanderthalensis . Their stone chips were discovered in Mugello on Monte Cetona in the province of Siena , in the Apuan Alps , in Livorno, in the Serchio Valley and the lower reaches of Arno. The well-preserved Neanderthal skull was discovered in 1939 in the Gvaratti cave near Cape Circeo. ^[2]

Early evidence of the presence of Homo sapiens dating back to the Upper Paleolithic was found near Laterina, Montelupo and Monte Longo, near Arezzo. The parking lots in Grotta La Fabbrica (Arezzo), San Romano (Pisa), Salviano and Maroccone (Livorno) belong to the Uluzzian culture. ^[3] The Upper Paleolithic period also includes the remains of a man of twenty and a two-year-old boy discovered in Ripario di Vado all А Arancho in the province of Grosseto in southern Tuscany. ^[four]

In the sixth millennium BC, the so-called culture of cardiac ceramics appeared in Tuscany, which marked the beginning of the Neolithic era. At this time, local communities engaged in active trade exchanges with communities on islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea ( Tuscan archipelago , Corsica , Sardinia ). Following in the territory of Tuscany, the culture of linear ceramics became widespread. ^[5] .

In the Eneolithic era, between the third and second millennium BC, a culture came to Tuscany and northern Lazio, called Rinaldon culture, which later incorporated elements of the culture of bell-shaped goblets . The stele statues from Lunigiana also belong to this period.

Bronze Age

During the Bronze Age (1200-1000 BC), the Apennine culture spread throughout Tuscany, which appeared here along with Italian tribes and had much in common with the culture of the funeral urn fields in central Europe .

Villanovo culture

With the beginning of the Iron Age, between the X and VIII centuries BC Villanovo culture appeared in Tuscany, which got its name from the village of Villanovo , in the commune of Castonazo , next to which spears, swords, crests and jewelry of that period were discovered by archaeologists. Discovered artifacts indicate progress in the extraction and processing of metals, which are especially rich in the subsoil of the region.

Etruscans

By the VIII century BC. e. the earliest evidence of the presence in the whole of central Italy of the Etruscan tribe, by whose name the whole region was called Etruria , then under the ancient Romans of Tuscia , and, finally, Tuscany and Tuscany.

The origin of the Etruscans is still a mystery to historians. When deciphering the surviving records (there are about 13,000), scientists are faced with the problem of understanding. The inscriptions mainly relate to the religious sphere or funeral ritual. There is speculation that the Etruscans come from Lydia in Asia Minor. According to another version, they are natives. Ornaments, weapons, and household items from Sardinia were found in the oldest Etruscan tombs. These findings indicate that a more developed civilization than the Etruscans colonized the coast of Tuscany and created important settlements in the first millennium BC for further advancement to Campania. Around the VI century BC. e. the Etruscans reached their peak of development, settling from the Padan plain to Campania . They paved roads, among which Vieux Cave is well preserved, between Sovana , Pitigliano and Sorano , drained the swamps, built large cities in Tuscany and Lazio : Arezzo , Chiusi , Volterra , Populonia , Vetulonia , Rosella , Wulci , Tarquinia , Vejo and Volsinius .

The high level of Etruscan civilization is evidenced by exceptional archaeological finds discovered on a vast territory, primarily in tombs - of all types and sizes - necropolises (cities of the dead). It is also known that the Etruscans have equal rights between men and women.

In addition to the Etruscans, northern Tuscany was inhabited by tribes from the group of ligurs ( Apuans , Magels , Casuentins , Phriniates , Ilvats ), from which only a few inscriptions and archaeological sites have survived. It is believed that Tuscany, before the arrival of the Etruscans, was inhabited by umbra , ancient tribes of Indo-European origin. The Etruscans supplanted the Umbra and, according to Pliny the Elder , captured 300 of their cities, forcing the vanquished to go to the east coast of the Tiber .

Ancient Romans

In the III century BC the Etruscans were defeated by the ancient Romans, and after an initial period of prosperity associated with the development of crafts, mining and processing of iron, trade, a crisis occurred in the region that affected the economic, cultural and social spheres. In 180 BC the ancient Romans deported 47,000 apuan from Tuscany to the territory between Benevento and Campobasso. They settled in the cities founded by the Etruscan people, and also founded new ones, for example, Florence and Kozu. In the city of Koz, the walls they erected, the forum, the acropolis and the capitol, originally built as the temple of Jupiter, are well preserved. This city minted its coin.

Tuscan stamp

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region became heavily depopulated. Tuscany was alternately owned by the Ostrogoths and Byzantines until it was conquered in 569 by the Lombards, who founded the Duchy of Lucca here.

After the fall of the Lombards from the Franks, led by Charlemagne, the duchy became a county, and then the Marquis of Lucca. In the XI century, the Marquis was transferred into the possession of the Atoni family, influential feudal lords from Canossa, who also owned Modena, Reggio Emilia and Mantua. From this family came the famous Countess Matilda of Canos, whose castle became the meeting place of Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV. At this time, fortresses were actively erected on the territory of Tuscany, abbeys were built. So there were the castles of Monteriggioni, Brolio, Lucignano, Poppi, Castello di Oliveto near Castelfiorentino, Radicofani, Trequanda, Volterra, Castello Malaspin in Massa, Fosdinovo, Gargonza, Vicopisano, Lari, Monsummano, Monteastello-dibli near Monteastello-dibi Val di Pesa, Castello di Nipozzano, Buchine, Montalcino, Piancastano, as well as numerous castles in the province of Grosseto.

Free Communities

In the 11th century, Pisa became the most powerful and important city of Tuscany, after a series of victories over Muslim Arabs, including the liberation of Palermo and Reggio Calabria and the conquest of the Balearic Islands. The territory of the maritime republic covered the entire coast of Tuscany, the islands of the Tuscan archipelago, Sardinia and Corsica. In southern Tuscany, representatives of the Aldobrandeschi clan descended from Lombardy ruled. They controlled the southern part of the modern provinces of Livorno and Siena, as well as the entire province of Grosseto to the border with Lazio, often entering into territorial conflicts with the popes. Later, the Siena Republic arose in this territory, which fought with the Florentine Republic for influence in the region.

In the 12th century, Lucca became the first city in Italy to proclaim itself a free commune. So the first form of representative democracy and associations of artists and masters appeared, which made Tuscany a unique example of cultural, social and economic autonomy.

In the first decades of the 13th century, the first universities appeared in Tuscany. In 1215, the University of Arezzo was founded, and in 1240, the University of Siena appeared, which is still operating.

The Medici Age

If in the XIV century Tuscany was glorified by two of its great natives, Dante and Giotto, then in the XV century a whole galaxy of prominent artists was created here, whose works laid the foundation for a period that went down in history, called the Renaissance, or Renaissance. In the XII century, Tuscany gained political autonomy. It was fragmented into many states, the most important of which were the Florentine and Siena republics. The development of trade in Florence turned the city into an important financial center of European importance, with dynasties of bankers such as Bardi, Peruzzi and Medici, who throughout the Middle Ages lent money to European sovereigns, financing their wars. Since the XIV century, the Florentine Republic has pursued an expansionist policy aimed at uniting Tuscany under the rule of Florence, stumbling into serious resistance only from the Siena Republic. In the 15th century, the Medici family came to power in the city, becoming the most important family in Florence. Representatives of this kind have been active in the institutions of the republic since the middle of the 15th century, starting with Cosimo the Elder. Despite opposition from other families sitting in the Palazzo Vecchio, he managed to gain almost complete control over the republican authorities, strengthening the position of the family in such a way that after his death the reins passed to his son Piero Medici. The period between the death of Cosimo the Elder and his grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent is the period of the transformation of Florence into an important cultural and political center of Italy of the 15th century. From the reign of Lorenzo the Magnificent, power was in the hands of the Medici family, with the exception of two republican periods from 1498 to 1502 and from 1512 to 1530. His grandson, Cosimo de Medici, descended from the youngest branch of the clan, received the title of the first Duke of Tuscany, and in 1569 the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany under the name Cosimo I. At this time, the entire territory of Tuscany except the Republic of Lucca, the Principality of Piombino, and the territory of Orbetello and Monte -Argentario, located in the state of Presidency, was ruled by the Florentine Republic, after the fall of the Siena Republic in 1555. The Medici family ruled Tuscany until 1737. Gian Gastone, the last Grand Duke of Tuscany from the clan of Medicine, had no heirs. The last representative of the Medici family, Anna Maria Louise, Elector of Palatinate, donated to Florence all the artistic values ​​collected by the Medici family, which formed the basis of the Uffizi Gallery.

Habsburg Board

After the death of the Grand Duke Gian Gastone de Medici , the throne of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany passed to the Duke of Francois Etienne of Lorraine, wife of Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria. He passed the throne to his son, Peter Leopold of Habsburg, who laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Tuscan dynasty. At the beginning of his reign, the Grand Duke introduced a moratorium on the death penalty in Tuscany, which operated for 4 years, until 1790, when the death penalty was restored. The day of the abolition of the death penalty, November 30, 1786, is now annually celebrated as Tuscany Day. The power of the Habsburgs in Tuscany was interrupted during the occupation of Italy by the army of Napoleon . In 1814, the great duchy was restored. The son of Pietro Leopoldo, Ferdinando III, ascended the throne. His son, Leopoldo II, the last Grand Duke of Tuscany ruled until Tuscany became part of the united Kingdom of Italy.

During their reign, the rulers from the Habsburg dynasty carried out a number of reforms, in particular, the judicial system, built the first railway in Tuscany, implemented a project to rationalize the territory with the creation of land and land reclamation in Maremma. The Habsburg-Tuscan regime was authoritarian, but not reactionary. The last great duke granted subjects a constitution. After the suppression of the revolution of 1848-1849 with the support of the Austrian army , the popularity of the dynasty fell. In 1859, when the people of Tuscany decided to enter a united Italy, the Grand Duke was expelled from Florence.

Risorgimento

During the Napoleonic Wars and the first period of Risorgimento in Tuscany, Italian patriots found political refuge. The entry of the great Duchy of Tuscany was the result of a bloodless revolution and a plebiscite conducted on March 15, 1860 by the Provisional Government of Tuscany. He issued a decree on the accession of Tuscany, first to the Sardinian kingdom , and then to the united Kingdom of Italy. From the very beginning, federalist sentiments were strong in Tuscany. ^[6] .

Before the capital was transferred to Rome in 1870, the residence of the government of the country was located in Florence for five years. The city became the cultural and political center of the kingdom. This fact, together with the peace agreements between Prussia, Austria and Italy, which resulted in the recognition of the unity of the country, weakened the position of the federalist party, and it split into different political groups. ^[7]

Since then, the history of Tuscany has been associated with the history of the Italian state.

• Enzo Bernardini. Toscana antica dal paleolitico alla civilta 'etrusca . Fratelli Melita, 1989. P. 240 ISBN 8840362940
• History of Tuscany on the website Comuni-italiani.it (ital.)
• History of Tuscany on Florenceholidays.com (Italian)