Smoke powder (also black powder [1] ) is historically the first propellant explosive (BB), consisting mainly of three components: nitrate , charcoal and sulfur . Invented, apparently, in China in the Middle Ages . For about 500 years, until the middle of the XIX century , it was practically the only explosive available to mankind. By the 1890s, it was almost completely ousted from the military sphere by more advanced explosives; in particular, as a propellant, gave way to various types of smokeless powder . Nevertheless, smoke powder continues to be used to a limited extent at present, especially in pyrotechnics . Sometimes gunpowder is used as a booster charge in some types of ammunition and in remote tubes , as well as amateur shooters and hunters with manual ammunition [1] [2] [3] .
The obvious drawbacks of smoke powder when used in military affairs are its very low power compared to smokeless powder (not to mention blasting explosives). In addition, as the name implies, during combustion it forms a dense cloud of smoke, unmasking the firing position of the shooter or guns , making it difficult to see the target and the shooting sector, and also complicating the visual control of the results of the shelling. The advantages of black powder are an extremely long shelf life , to a lesser extent - low sensitivity to changes in air temperature , comparative safety for weapons when firing, simplicity and low cost of production [1] [2] [3] [4] .
Content
- 1 The history of smoke powder
- 2 Composition and manufacture
- 3 Properties
- 3.1 Appearance and physical properties
- 3.2 Processes during the combustion of smoke powder
- 3.3 Advantages and disadvantages
- 4 Application
- 5 Smoke powder in history and culture
- 6 See also
- 7 notes
- 8 References
The history of black powder
It is believed that gunpowder was invented in China, where it was already known as a nitro-sulfur-coal mixture around the 10th century [1] . The widely known work of F. Engels "Artillery", written by him for the American New Encyclopedia , contained the following lines [5] [6] :
 | In China and India, the soil is replete with natural nitrate , and it is natural that the local population got acquainted with its properties early ... We have no information when exactly a special mixture of nitrate, sulfur and charcoal became known, the explosive properties of which gave it such great importance ... Arabs borrowed Chinese and Indians saltpeter and pyrotechnics. |
At first smoke powder was used for entertainment purposes - the device of amusing fires and the likeness of missiles - and only later as a substance suitable for military purposes. So, by 1259, the Chinese describe one of the first models of weapons that used gunpowder - “spears of furious fire” [4] . From the Arabs living in Spain , acquaintance with the development and use of gunpowder during the XIV century spread throughout Europe. In Europe, according to legend, the German monk Bertold Schwartz is considered the inventor of gunpowder, but, obviously, gunpowder was known before him. So, even the English philosopher and researcher Roger Bacon (c. 1214 - c. 1292 ) wrote about the explosive nitrate-gray-coal composition known to him [6] . Over five centuries, smoke powder was the only throwing and explosive substance in the world, widely used both in artillery and explosive shells, and in rockets.
Initially, gunpowder was a mechanical mixture of nitrate, coal and sulfur in the form of a very fine powder. Its combustion was poorly predicted, fine powder in addition was unsafe, because it often led to damage or rupture of gun trunks . His power also left much to be desired. The issue of increasing the power of gunpowder was solved, apparently by chance during the solution of another problem - reducing the hygroscopicity of this substance. Dusty powder that existed in the XIV - XV centuries very quickly got wet due to the extreme hygroscopicity of nitrate and the large area of contact of the powder particles with air. These problems were largely resolved at the beginning of the 16th century , when gunpowder began to be made granular. Salt-sulfur-coal powder, mixed with water, was turned into a paste, which was then dried in the form of lumps and, if necessary, ground into grains [5] [7] . This not only increased the safety of gunpowder, but also simplified the loading process. It also turned out that the granules explode almost twice as powerful as dust powder of the same mass. In addition, granular gunpowder, unlike fine powder, did not require additional empty space in the breech of the barrel for effective ignition - there were enough gaps between the granules for this. As a result, the power of the weapon was significantly increased [7] . Subsequently, the granulation technique was improved, the powder mass was pressed at high pressure, and after grinding the uneven pieces were polished, which made it possible to obtain hard shiny granules [8] .
Composition and manufacture
Black powder usually consists of three components: saltpeter, coal and sulfur. When gunpowder is burned, nitrate gives oxygen for burning coal; Sulfur - Cements coal-saltpeter mixture. In addition, having a lower flash point than coal, sulfur accelerates the ignition of gunpowder [9] .
Usually, potassium nitrate ( potassium nitrate ) is taken for the manufacture of gunpowder, as it is less hygroscopic in comparison with other nitrates (for example, sodium ). Nitrate should be distinguished by a high degree of purity - 99.8%; an admixture of sodium nitrate according to Soviet standards of the 1920s was allowed no higher than 0.03%. Chlorine compounds, when calculated on sodium chloride, were also allowed no more than 0.03% [10] .
Charcoal for gunpowder is obtained by roasting ( pyrolysis ) of non-resinous wood species ( alder and especially buckthorn ) to obtain a product that is 80–90% carbon; the use of resinous wood negatively affects the properties of gunpowder, and conifers are not prone to coal formation. However, coniferous firewood is used to initiate the combustion process, followed by backfilling other types of wood with the historical method of charcoal production. It should be noted that until the 19th century, charcoal burning was carried out in coal pits, which did not allow a product that was homogeneous in its properties (due to the presence of both unburnt (not pyrolyzed) and burnt wood (i.e. ash )). And only the introduction of pyrolysis in steel retorts with a water lock allowed to obtain guaranteed high-quality coal, while the best types of wood for coal were considered beech , hornbeam , oak for heavy coals and birch mixed with aspen for the lungs. Depending on the availability of wood of a particular breed in a given area and the development of coal production, national requirements and particularities of the production of black powder were formed, since it is the quality of the wood and the degree of burning of coal that largely determine the quality of the powder. The lower the degree of burning of coal, the lower its burning rate, which is not always a negative factor. The content of pure carbon in coal should be at least 75–80%; It is known that with a decrease in the amount of coal in gunpowder, its burning rate increases, but with an increase in the percentage of carbon in coal, it decreases. In hunting varieties of black gunpowder, the saltpeter content sometimes increased slightly, for example, French and German hunting gunpowder contained 78% nitrate, 10% sulfur and 12% coal. In “mine” grades (for blasting), on the contrary, contained more sulfur and coal; for example, in Russia a mixture of 66.6% nitrate, 16.7% sulfur and 16.7% coal was used [9] . Gunpowder, used in primitive rockets of the 19th century , gave higher momentum with a high content of nitrate. Conversely, with a decrease in the amount of nitrate in gunpowder, these indicators decreased [11] . In general, with an increase in the amount of nitrate in gunpowder, its burning rate also increases, but up to a certain limit - no more than 80% [12] .
As for sulfur, only crystalline sulfur with a melting point of 114.5 ° C [3] [12] is used for the manufacture of gunpowder. According to the mentioned standards, it should not contain compounds of calcium , magnesium and water-insoluble substances - sand, metal, wood, etc. [10]
From 1650 to the present, the “classic” smoke powder with some deviations has the following composition (by weight): 75% potassium nitrate, 15% coal, 10% sulfur. Historically, the composition of gunpowder has undergone changes [9] :
Saltpeter Coal Sulfur England, 1250 41.2 29.4 29.4 France, 1338 fifty 25 25 Germany, 1595 52,2 26.1 21.7 France, 1650 75.6 13.6 10.8 England, 1781 75 fifteen 10
In the second half of the 19th century and later, three main varieties of military smoke powder were distinguished: black , brown and chocolate , depending on the degree of burning of coal, which was part of the powder [13] . Brown powder also had a sulfur content reduced to 5%; ballistic indicators of brown and chocolate gunpowder were significantly superior to those for ordinary black [14] . Smoke powder is known that does not contain sulfur at all - sulfur-free [12] .
The manufacture of smoke powder is a purely mechanical process that does not include the implementation of chemical reactions [10] . The technological process for the production of smoke powder was finally formed at the end of the XIX century. The stages are mainly as follows [15] :
- Grinding components (saltpeter, sulfur and coal) in metal barrels with millstones of a spherical shape;
- Preparation of a ternary mixture by mixing the components;
- Moisten with water;
- Compaction of the mixture and its pressing in the form of a “cake” (since 1874 - by the method of “hot pressing” at a temperature of 100-105 ° C);
- Grinding the resulting powder “cake” into grains of the required size;
- Screening dust, polishing grains and sorting;
- Mixing and packing of gunpowder.
This process remains fundamentally unchanged to the present, with the exception of materials used in tools.
Properties
Appearance and physical properties
Modern smoky gunpowder for small arms is a powder from granules (the size of the grains of hunting gunpowder is mostly no larger than 1.25 mm [16] ), the color of which ranges from blue-black to gray-black (hence the common name "black powder") . High-quality gunpowder has solid, shiny grains, the shape of which is usually irregular, angular, although the best varieties of hunting gunpowder could have a rounded shape of the grains [10] . Smoke powder for small arms is sorted by grain size, and smaller is considered the best, providing faster combustion of the charge [1] [3] .
Density of powder can vary from 1.6–1.93 g / cm³. Gravimetric density - 0.8–1 kg / l [3] [12] . Artillery smoke powder, used in the past, had grains of significantly larger size, reaching several mm. In the middle of the 19th century, brown and chocolate powder for the most powerful tools began to be made with prismatic or cubic grains with face sizes up to 1 cm, and to give the grains a “progressive” shape (providing a constant or increasing relative grain surface area during combustion) they were often perforated. Its use has significantly increased the initial velocity of shells [15] .
Soviet specialists of the 1930s gave an exhaustive description of the properties of smoke powder [17] :
| Good powder has resistance to crushing between fingers, does not get dirty hands and, poured on paper, completely leaves no dust. If the sample falls from a height of 1 m onto a hard surface, the powder should not give dust. A small pile of gunpowder, lit on paper, should quickly flash, giving vertically rising smoke, and the paper should not catch fire. If the powder leaves spots or particles of solid combustion products, mixing of the composition was insufficient. |
Processes for the combustion of smoke powder
When burned, black powder gives thick and dense white-blue smoke. In the past, an experienced gunner could make conclusions about the quality of gunpowder (the thicker the smoke, the better gunpowder) and its throwing capabilities, including the essential characteristics of the gun — approximate caliber and range, in terms of color and shape of the smoky cloud.
A small amount of gunpowder when ignited gives a flash of a bright flame with smoke, but the burning of a large amount of smoky gunpowder passes into an explosion . On average, only 40% of its mass is converted into gaseous substances and is involved in the ejection of a projectile. The remaining 60% remain solid particles, which, when fired, form a thick cloud of smoke and settle in the barrel in the form of soot [18] . During one of the experiments conducted by American experts, during the combustion of 82 grains of smoke powder, 42 grains of solid residues were formed [14] . The gases generated during combustion are approximately 280 times greater than the amount of burnt powder. The flash point of smoke powder is about 300 ° C, which is higher than that of many high-explosive substances. The chemical processes that occur during the combustion of black powder are very complex, so the reaction of its decomposition in full is almost impossible to imagine with one formula. However, very approximately its burning occurs in the following form [17] :
The amount of nitrogen in the powder gases reaches one third. In addition, carbon monoxide is formed . Solid residues, in addition to potassium sulfide , are, first of all, potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate and pure carbon in the form of soot [14] .
Smoke powder is able to create a maximum pressure in the barrel of not more than 600 kg / cm². In this case, the initial flight speed of a bullet or projectile using smoke powder can hardly exceed 500 m / s , and in smooth-bore hunting rifles it is even lower - no higher than 350 m / s [3] . When firing, usually not all gunpowder manages to burn in the barrel even with good cartridge equipment. Therefore, small arms designed for firing smoke powder, as a rule, have a longer barrel to ensure maximum charge burning [14] . The nature of the combustion of smoke powder significantly depends on the charge density, that is, on the degree of charge compression [13] .
Strengths and weaknesses
One of the most noticeable negative features of smoke powder is the emission of large amounts of smoke during combustion, which unmasked the gun or arrow and made it difficult to observe the target. Even in modern conditions, when using smoke powder on a hunt, it is not always convenient - in the case of a shot in calm and humid weather or in thickets, smoke can completely hide the target [3] . With regard to its sensitivity to shock and friction, smoke powder is one of the most safe explosives to handle, but this property cannot be overestimated. During the experiments, a metal ball weighing 10 kg from a height of more than 45 cm dropped onto gunpowder caused an explosion, although no explosion occurred at lower values of the height and weight of the ball [17] . A bullet hitting a mass of black powder at a speed above 500 m / s usually also causes an explosion [12] . Smoke powder is one of the most sensitive explosives to fire. On the one hand, this increases the safety requirements when handling it, since it can flare up even from the slightest spark generated by the accidental impact of two metal objects. On the other hand, this property facilitates its ignition in ammunition [13] .
Smoke powder during a shot is much safer than smokeless smoke: even if for some reason the cartridge contains a double amount of smoke powder, firing it will not lead to a rupture of the barrel of the weapon (which often happens when exceeding the installed weight of smokeless powder). Accordingly, with manual equipment of cartridges, smoke powder does not require an exact weight with the use of pharmacy scales , it is sufficient to use volumetric measurements [16] . Определённую опасность, однако, представляет возможное наличие в заряде пороховой пыли, которая может привести к взрывному горению пороха [2] . К недостаткам дымного пороха следует отнести также громкий звук выстрела и повышенную отдачу [3] .
Возможно, важнейшее достоинство дымного пороха — долговечность при хранении. При соблюдении надлежащих условий (полная изоляция от влажности, хранение при постоянной невысокой температуре) он может сохранять свои свойства практически неограниченное время, в отличие от бездымных порохов, срок хранения которых не превышает нескольких лет [3] .
Дымный порох весьма гигроскопичен. Он способен впитывать влагу из воздуха со скоростью 1 % в сутки. Когда его влажность превысит 3 % , он становится непригоден к использованию, поскольку воспламеняется с трудом; при влажности около 15 % он совершенно теряет способность к воспламенению [1] [2] . Будучи подмоченным, дымный порох навсегда теряет свои свойства. При высушивании они не восстанавливаются, поскольку из подмоченного пороха выщелачивается селитра. Наличие в массе пороха комков слипшихся зёрен обычно служит признаком того, что порох был подмочен [3] . Тем не менее, незначительное содержание влаги в порохе является нормой и обычно составляет 0,7–1 % [12] .
Высокая способность, с одной стороны, к подмоканию в силу высокой гигроскопичности (со снижением метательной способности), а с другой стороны — крайняя горючесть и склонность в ряде случаев к самовозгоранию накладывали существенные ограничения на хранение и использование черного пороха, особенно на кораблях. Лучшим средством сбережения пороха считалось помещение его в провощённом пергаменте или холщовом мешке внутрь дубового бочонка, осмолённого снаружи, со складированием таких бочонков в сухом месте.
Также к числу недостатков чёрного пороха относится выброс большого количества медленно горящих фрагментов при выстреле, что может вызвать возгорание легковоспламеняющихся материалов, а не полностью сгоревший порох оседает на частях оружия, включая прицельные приспособления, и ином снаряжении, что требует их чистки. Кроме того, при заряжании оружия имеется риск воспламенения заряжаемого пороха от соприкосновения с тлеющими частицами, оставшимися в стволе. Именно поэтому в большинстве артикулов и наставлений по стрельбе содержался запрет на заряжание оружия прямо из пороховницы — разрешено было заряжание только «с патрону» заранее отмеренного количества пороха, достаточного для выстрела, находящегося в картузе . Однако в артиллерии в условиях, в частности, морского боя данная проблема не была полностью решена, и во время серии залпов существовал риск воспламенения картузов с порохом при заряжании орудия, что неоднократно приводило к катастрофам.
Сильная зависимость горения дымного пороха от давления окружающего воздуха затрудняет его применение в зенитных боеприпасах, взрывающихся на высоте с давлением значительно ниже нормального атмосферного . При опытах выяснилось, что при давлении около 450 мм рт. ст . начинается частичное затухание горящего дымного пороха в дистанционных трубках (гаснет порох примерно в 20–30 % трубок), а при давлениях ниже 350 мм все трубки затухают. Скорость горения дымного пороха, запрессованного в дистанционные трубки, при сжигании на воздухе — 8–10 мм /с [12] . Но при этом дымный порох практически нечувствителен, в отличие от бездымного, к изменениям температуры воздуха [3] .
Application
Дымный порох был исторически первым взрывчатым веществом и оставался единственным ВВ, использовавшимся и для метания снарядов, и как бризантное вещество. Такое положение сохранялось до изобретения иных ВВ в середине XIX века. С появлением бездымных порохов чёрный порох оказался быстро вытеснен ими и как метательное вещество. В 1890-е годы новые образцы стрелкового оружия и артиллерии армий передовых в военном отношении государств стали производиться в расчёте на использование только бездымного пороха. В Российской империи бездымный порох был утверждён как стандартный для трёхлинейных винтовок образца 1891 года и орудий полевой, горной, крепостной, осадной и береговой артиллерии приказом по артиллерии от 6 февраля 1895 года [19] .
Однако из военной сферы дымный порох не был исключён полностью. Он нашёл применение как метательное вещество в различных видах реактивного оружия — например, вышибной заряд немецкого ручного гранатомёта « Панцерфауст » образца 1942 года состоял из ружейного дымного пороха. Точно так же чёрный порох использовался в первых советских гранатомётах РПГ-1 (не пошедшем в серийное производство) и РПГ-2 , который находился на вооружении не только СССР, но и других стран. 5-граммовый заряд дымного пороха используется, например, в болгарской противопехотной выпрыгивающей мине ПСМ-1 и служит для её выбрасывания из грунта [20] .
Пороховые элементы, изготовленные из дымного пороха и имеющие плотность 1,65 г/см³ и ниже, горят незакономерно , то есть не параллельными слоями. Но если порох уплотнён до 1,8 г/см³ и выше, он горит параллельными слоями и очень удобен, благодаря высокой чувствительности к лучу пламени, для использования во взрывателях для передачи огня основному заряду ВВ, в дистанционных трубках и т. д. Благоприятным фактором является и сравнительно малое количество выделяемых при его сгорании газов, что позволяет использовать его в замкнутых трубках без опасности их разрыва. Дымный порох может использоваться также в капсюльных втулках артиллерийских патронов для усиления инициирующего луча пламени [13] .
В настоящее время в гражданской сфере дымный порох применяется в пиротехнике, при изготовлении огнепроводных шнуров и при некоторых видах взрывных работ по добыче дорогого камня [21] . Он до сих пор не утратил значение для стрелков-любителей и охотников, иногда снаряжающих патроны дымным порохом [1] .
В Европе и США существуют общественные организации, популяризирующие охоту и спортивную стрельбу с использованием именно чёрного пороха, дульнозарядного и иного исторического оружия. Данное направление приобретает с каждым годом всё большую популярность, так как придаёт охоте необходимый элемент случайности, полностью убранный современным дальнобойным оружием, средствами связи и наблюдения. Во многих странах существуют национальные ассоциации любителей стрельбы с использованием чёрного пороха. Кроме того, широкомасштабные исторические реконструкции и киносъёмки не обходятся без применения чёрного пороха. Правовой режим изготовления и продажи чёрного пороха различается в зависимости от страны: в большинстве стран Европы чёрный порох производится заводским способом на основании специального разрешения и продаётся в охотничьих магазинах на основании лицензии и с ограничением по количеству. Оружие, рассчитанное на его применение, продаётся, перевозится, используется и хранится без ограничений; но существует и обратный порядок: оружие по лицензии на общих основаниях, а порох — свободно при наличии лицензии на оружие. В США Актом по контролю над оружием 1968 года кремнёвые, капсюльные, дульнозарядные и т. п. системы оружия, использующие дымный порох, признаются антиквариатом, их оборот не подпадает под действие законодательства об оружии .
Дымный порох в истории и культуре
Во всех без исключения произведениях, написанных до появления бездымных порохов, в случае, если речь идёт о порохе, имеется в виду дымный порох. При описаниях сражений часто указывается на плотные облака дыма, застилавшие поле боя. Некоторые авторы классических произведений придавали описанию пороха особое значение. Так, Жюль Верн в романе « С Земли на Луну прямым путём за 97 часов 20 минут » ( 1865 год ) уделил дискуссии о порохе заметное место [22] :
| Для заряда своей колумбиады , — продолжал майор, — Родмен употреблял крупный порох с зёрнами величиной в каштан; входивший в его состав уголь приготовлялся из древесины ивы , которую пережигали в чугунных котлах. Этот порох твёрд на ощупь, блестящ, не оставляет никакого следа на руке, содержит значительное количество водорода и кислорода, воспламеняется мгновенно и, несмотря на свою разрушительную силу, почти что не засоряет орудие. |
Дымный порох обладает резким солоноватым вкусом, благодаря чему его иногда использовали вместо соли . Это отмечено в романе Л. Н. Толстого « Война и мир » [23] .
| Лошадиное мясо было вкусно и питательно, селитренный букет пороха, употребляемого вместо соли, был даже приятен. |
Однако известно, что употребление пороха в пищу нередко вызывало отравления. Существует мнение, что предубеждение европейских народов в отношении поедания конины связано с тем, что солдаты наполеоновской армии при отступлении из Москвы посыпали порохом вместо соли мясо павших лошадей. Это приводило к частым случаям интоксикации [24] .
Интересен способ употребления пороха, рекомендованный главным героем повести Н. В. Гоголя « Тарас Бульба ». Тарас советовал, в случае лёгкого ранения, во избежание лихорадки «размешать заряд пороху в чарке сивухи » и выпить [25] .
There have been many cases in world history when the detonation of smoke powder (or its attempt) had an important impact on public life. The famous 1605 gunpowder conspiracy in London is well known when the conspirators unsuccessfully tried to destroy the British Parliament together with King James I , laying 80 barrels of black powder under the Palace of Westminster .
See also
- Ballistics
- Firearms
- Smoothbore weapon
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Russian hunting. Encyclopedia .. - M .: "The Great Russian Encyclopedia"; “Consent”, 1998. - S. 220. - 344 p. - 30,000 copies. - ISBN 5-85270-159-9 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Handbook of the hunter. - M .: Kolos, 1964. - S. 75. - 399 p. - 250,000 copies.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Smoke powder . St. Petersburg hunter. Date of treatment December 4, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 Gunpowder . VIPtrophy.com. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 Smoke-powder . The history of rocket technology. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 F. Engels. Articles by Friedrich Engels on military history. Artillery. . Chronos Library. Date of treatment December 5, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 Gevorg Mirzayan. Flash, flame and terrible sound . Expert. - "Expert" No. 29 (667), July 27, 2009. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ I.N. Grigoriev. Black gunpowder, part 4 . Chemistry and chemists. - No. 4, 2011. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived on January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 I.N. Grigoriev. Black gunpowder, part 1 . Chemistry and chemists. - No. 4, 2011. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived on January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Smoke powder . - An article from the Technical Encyclopedia, 1927–34. Date of access December 5, 2012. Archived on January 5, 2013.
- ↑ Smoky Gunpowder . The history of rocket technology. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Classification of gunpowder. Gunpowder - mechanical mixtures. Basic requirements for gunpowder and classification of gunpowder. . Shooting club - pistoletchik.ru. Date of treatment December 5, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Horst A.G. Gunpowder and explosives . Pyrotechnic chemistry. - Horst A. G. Gunpowder and explosives - M., Oborongiz, 1949. Date of access 05 December 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Randy Wakeman. Blackpowder to Pyrodex and Beyond . Chuck Hawks (2003). Date of treatment December 5, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 Brief history of the development of gunpowder . warinform.ru. Date of treatment December 5, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 Smoke-powder . Kaliningrad hunting club. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 I.N. Grigoriev. Black gunpowder, part 5 . Chemistry and chemists. - No. 4, 2011. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived on January 5, 2013.
- ↑ Gunpowder . rus-oxota.ru. Date of treatment November 30, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ Development of the design of guns and ammunition . Encyclopedia of artillery. Date of treatment December 5, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ PSM-1 anti-personnel mine . Sapper. Date of treatment December 5, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ Smoky Gunpowder . Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Date of treatment December 4, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ Verne, Jules. From Earth to the Moon in a direct way in 97 hours 20 minutes . lib.ru. - Per. from French: Marco Vovchok. Publisher: J. Vern. Sobr. Op. in 6 vol. T.1, “The Modern Writer”, M., 1993. Date of access December 5, 2012. Archived on January 5, 2013.
- ↑ L.N. Tolstoy. War and peace . magister.msk.ru. - T. 4, part 3. Date of treatment December 5, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ Napoleon retreated through the Kaluga land . KP — Kaluga. Date of treatment December 6, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
- ↑ N.V. Gogol. Taras Bulba . klassika.ru. Date of treatment December 5, 2012. Archived January 5, 2013.
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