De-buccalization

English

Most English speakers in Britain and many in the USA de-buccalize [t] to [ʔ] in two positions.

• At the end of a word before another consonant.
  • get ready [ˈɡɛʔˈɹɛɾi]
  • not much [ˈnɑʔˈmʌtʃ]
  • not good [ˈnɑʔˈɡʊd]
  • it says [ɪʔˈsɛz]
• Before a syllable [ n̩ ] following [l], [r], [n] or a vowel ([t] may also be subject to a faucule explosion in this position).
  • Milton [ˈmɪlʔn̩]
  • Martin [ˈmɑɹʔn̩]
  • mountain [ˈmaʊnʔn̩]
  • cotton [ˈkɑʔn̩]

In cockney [t] is replaced by [ʔ] between vowels, smooth and nasal (especially noticeable in the word bottle ). There is also a more special name for this phenomenon - t-glottalization.

Bavarian Dialect

The Bavarian dialect of the German language de-buccalizes p, t, k, b, d, g between consonants up to [ʔ] (vowels in the same position are elysed). So, Antn (ducks) and Andn (Andes) are pronounced the same way: [anʔn], although the speakers in these cases realize different phonemes: t and d. Instead of the usual Bavarian form, sàn (d) ([we] are) sometimes pronounce hàn (d) .

Scottish English

In some dialects of the Scottish dialect of English, instead of the sound [θ] (in the letter - th ), [h] can be pronounced.

Protogreek

In proto-Greek, [s] passed into [h] before the vowel at the beginning of the word and between the sonorants (that is, the vowels and the most sonorous consonants). [h] between sonorants was lost by the ancient Greek era. Ancient Greek [h] is called " dense aspiration ."

Examples:

• PIE * s wéḱuros “father-in-law”> other Greek ἑκυρός [ h e.ky.rós]
  • without de-buccalization: Skt. श्वशुर ( ś vaśura), lat. s ocer , Rus. with Vökor , other English s weor

• PIE * s eptḿ̥ "seven"> dr. ἑπτά [ h ep.tá]
  • without de-buccalization: Hindi सात [ s āt], lat. s eptem , Russian with em , eng. s even

• PIE * s uH- “pig”> other Greek ὗς [ h y᷇ːs]
  • without de-buccalization: Hindi सूअर [ s ū'ar], lat. s ūs , Russian with vina , English s ow

• PIE * s omHós "(the same)"> dr. Greek ὁμός [ h o.mós]
  • without de-buccalization: Hindi सम [ s əm], Rus. with the first , English. s ame

• PIE * h₁é s mi "(I) am"> protogrich. * e h mi > other Greek εἰμί [eː.mí] “to be”, “to exist”
  • without de-buccalization: Skt. अस्मि [á s mi], dr. f s lat. s um

Italian languages

• * χ> h, * VɣV> VɦV, where V are vowels.

In the Proto-Italian language, the pre-Indo-European aspiratory * gʰ turned to * χ at the beginning of the word and to * ɣ in the middle. Then, most likely already in separate Italian languages , de-buccalization occurred: * χ> [h], as well as * ɣ> [ ɦ ] between the vowels. (* ɣ in other positions changed to g in Latin and f in Osko-Umbrian languages.) In all Italian languages, [h] was written in the same way as [ɦ].

Examples:

• PIE * gʰ h₁bʰ- "take"> lat. h abeō “have”, umber. h abia , Osc . h aieist (3rd l., unit, bud.)
  • without de-buccalization: English g ive “give,” wall. g afael hold

• PIE * dʰerā gʰ - > lat. tra h o “drag”
  • without de-buccalization: English dra g "drag", Rus. fuck you

• PIE * ǵʰ ortós “fenced place”> lat. h ortus "garden", Osc. h úrz "sacred grove"
  • without de-buccalization: irl. g ort “wheat field”, other Greek χόρτος [ kʰ ór.tos] “corral” (with stunning aspirates); from the same root in another version and Russian. city

(However, this does not apply to the labialized PIE * gʷʰ .) ^[1]

In Oscan and Umbra, also, unlike Latin, [k] goes to [h] before [t]:

• Osc. e h trad ap-e h tre , but lat. extrā [ˈɛ k .straː] “outside”, “except”

• Osc. ri h tud re h te , but lat. rē c tō, rē c tē “straight”

• Osc. saa h túm , umber. sa h atam , but lat. sān c tum “sacred”

However, the combination of kt in Osk is possible if it was formed as a result of the loss of a vowel between k and t (in Umbrian, such k disappears). This indicates that before the vowel fell out, the transition [k]> [h] before [t] was the current phonetic law, while by the time it fell out, it ceased to operate and remained a historical law.

Sanskrit

In Sanskrit, [s] and [r] go to “ visarga ” [h] (in the transliteration IAST is denoted by ḥ) before a pause.

Example: PIE * kóh₂-mo- > proto-Indo-Iranian * kāma s > Skt. कामः [ˈkɑː.mɐ h ] "desire."

The aspiratory PIE * ǵʰ and * gʷʰ gave the proto-Indo-Iranian * ȷ́h and * ǰh respectively . In the Indo-Aryan branch they merged into * ǰh , which then, not before the aspiratory consonants, passed into [h]. (The inhospitable PIE * ǵ and * gʷ similarly yielded * ǰ , which did not go over in [h].) ^[2]

Example: PIE * ǵʰ ésto s > proto-Indo-Iranian * ȷ́hástas > Skt. हस्तः [ ɦ ɐstɐ h ] "hand".

In living Sanskrit, the replacement of the final [s], [r] by [h] before the pause was a valid phonetic law and had no exceptions.

Iranian Languages

[s] in Prairan turned into [h] not before noisy or [n] ^[2] .

Initial PIE * sw- > proto-Indo-Iranian * šw- . In the Iranian branch, this combination probably turned into * hv- , but this [h], depending on the language, often turns into a dull velar fricative (sound like Russian [x]).

Examples:

• Proto-Indo-Iranian * á s uras> ave . a h urō , but> Skt. असुर (á s ura)

• Proto-Indo-Iranian * s áwmas> ave . h aoma , but> Skt. सोम ( s óma) .

• Proto-Indo-Iranian * s indʰus> avest. h iṇdu , pers. h iⁿduš , but> Skt. सिन्धु ( s índhu) .

Below are 5 examples with the same pre-Indo-European words or roots, as for the ancient Greek above. These pra-Indo-European lexemes were inherited by both Prairan and Proto-Greek and underwent de-buccalization both here and there, although the conditions for de-buccalization in these languages ​​differed.

• PIE * s wéḱuros father-in-law> ave. x ^v asura-
  • but: Skt. श्वशुर ( ś vaśura), lat. s ocer , Rus. with Vökor , other English s weor

• PIE * s eptḿ̥ "seven"> avest. h apta , Khorezm. ʾ βd
  • but: Hindi सात [ s āt], lat. s eptem , Russian with em , eng. s even

• PIE * s uH- "pig"> avest. h ū , osset. x yy
  • but: Hindi सूअर [ s ū'ar], lat. s ūs , Russian with vina , English s ow

• PIE * s omHós "(the same)"> avest. h am , pers. h ama , zazaki h em , kurmanji h ev
  • but: Hindi सम [ s əm], Rus. with the first , English. s ame

• PIE * h₁é s mi "(I) am"> avest. a h mī , al-Persian a ʰ miy
  • but: Skt. अस्मि [á s mi], dr. f s lat. s um

Bashkir

In Bashkir [s] at the beginning of the word it was transferred to [h] , which distinguishes this language from other Kipchak languages . For example, the Tatar sagyz (“resin”, “chewing gum”) corresponds to the Bashkir һaғyҙ (“chewing sulfur”).

Buryat

In Buryat [s] at the beginning of a word it turned into a deaf pharyngeal fricative . Example: drill. Һ ardag at mong. with ardag “char”.

Yakutsky

with between vowels it always goes into һ - deaf pharyngeal fricative . Moreover, һ not between vowels is impossible without additional efforts. Thus, the Yakut debuccalization is the current phonetic law, and not historical.

In addition, in Yakutia there are no sounds z , z , q , w , u . In old borrowings from Russian, s , x , w , q are replaced by Yakut s , which between vowels turns into һ . Yakut c and һ also correspond to sounds like c , w , w , h , h in related words from other Turkic languages .

Examples:

• Yakut. bi һ ik "cradle" at kaz. be with ik , tour. be ş ik

• Yakut. ky һ yl “red” at tuv. ky zyl , head. ҡy ҙ yl

• Yakut. ү һ үөn “three” with ү with “three”

• Yakut. o ор war "pattern" from rus. have

• Yakut. ba һ yyba from rus. spa with for

• Yakut. ba һ aalista from rus. by train

• but yakut. hortuo with ka from rus. kartoshka - without de-buccalization, since s falls into a position not between vowels

Evenki

In the Evenki language there are three dialects: northern, southern and eastern. The main criterion for distinguishing adverbs is phonetic: the correspondence of sounds with // һ:

• the southern (sibilant) dialect is characterized by a consonant with at the beginning and in the intervocal position: sulaki - “fox”, Asi - “woman”;
• the northern (spirant) dialect is characterized by the consonant һ in the same positions: һulaki - “fox”, aһi - “woman”;
• in the dialects of the eastern dialect, in the initial position it occurs with and һ, in the intervocal - only һ: sulaki, һulaki - “fox”, and ai - “woman”.

(In some dialects there is a correspondence with // sh.)

Western Iberian Languages

Spanish

In all dialects of southern Spain, [s] and [θ] at the end of the syllable goes into [h] or [ɦ] ^[3] . The same de-buccalization [s] occurs in many Spanish dialects of Latin America (the phoneme [θ] is absent in Latin American dialects).

Galician

In some Galician dialects (and Spanish dialects under Galician influence) [g] in most cases gives [h], although [x] or a dull pharyngeal fricative ħ are also possible. This phenomenon is called gheada . ( Gueada is also known when Galicians, speaking Spanish, replace normative Spanish [x] with supposedly correct [g].)