Maslama ibn Abdul-Malik

Origin

Maslama was the son of the caliph Abdul-Malik ibn Marwan and was, therefore, a brother to the caliph's father, Walid b. Abdul-Malik ^{[4] [5]} . and Hishama b. Abdul Malik . However, his mother was an Umm Valad ^[6] , as a result of which he did not have the legal rights to inherit power ^{[1] [7]} and he never claimed it. Under the rule of Caliph Suleiman, he was the governor of Iran and Armenia .

War with Byzantium

The first ones mentioned about Maslam belong to 705 as a military leader of the Arab army, who fought against the Byzantine Empire ^[1] . His first major military campaign took place in 707–708 against the Byzantine city of Tiana ^{[5] [7] [8]} . A few months later, Maslama made a trip to Anatolia , and also defeated the Byzantine army near the Amorium . In 709, an army led by Maslama ibn Abdul-Malik invaded Isauria ^[8] . During the unsuccessful siege of Constantinople , carried out in 717–718 by Caliph Suleiman , Maslama commanded the Arab fleet ^[4] .

Maslama Mosque in Constantinople

It is believed that it was Maslama who asked the emperor Leo III to organize a mosque for Muslim prisoners of war ^{[9] [10]} . A mosque and a house for Muslims coming to the city were allegedly built in 717. In fact, the time and circumstances of the appearance of the mosque in Constaninople are unknown ^[11] . In 1049-1050 Konstantin IX Monomakh updated the Maslama mosque in gratitude for the service rendered to him by one of the Seljuk bei ^{[12] [13]} . The mosque was probably located in the Beyoglu quarter, where St. Paul's Church was later built ^[14] .

Conquest of the Caucasus

In 709, Maslama was appointed military governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan , replacing his uncle Muhammad ibn Marwan . Previously, he was appointed ruler of Jund Kinnasrin . Controlling the northwestern borders of the caliphate, Maslama undertook a series of campaigns against Byzantium. In 712, he captured Amasya , and in 714, Malatya ^{[1] [4] [7]} . After in 723 AD Maslama’s half-brother, Hisham ibn Abdul-Malik , became a caliph, he soon (in 725 AD) was appointed governor of both Arminiyi and Azerbaijan .

War with the Khazars in the Caucasus

Maslama ibn Abdul-Malik took up the duties of the governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan from the campaign of 725 AD e. against Lakz and Dagestan , gaining a foothold in the Hasmadan region. A counteroffensive by the troops of the Khazar Khakan under the leadership of his son Barsbek took place in the following year, 726 AD e .; to suppress it, the corps of al-Haris was sent. Amr at-tai. In the vicinity of the city of Varsan at the turn of 726-727 AD e. a decisive battle of the campaign took place, as a result of which the Khazars retreated - but al-Haris also died. Only after that Maslama personally went to war - however, his arrival in Barda'a is not dated not only a month, but even the time of year; only a year is mentioned. Arrived at the beginning of 109 g. (by the summer of 727 A.D.), Muslim troops dispersed throughout Azerbaijan and stayed there for the winter, preparing to repulse the Khazars' traditional winter raid - however, they did not appear. The reason for the lack of raid varies among different historians: from the fear of the large army of Maslama to the need to make up for losses after the battle with al-Haris ^{[15] [16]} . With the onset of spring 728 g. e. Maslamy’s army went on the offensive - on a route bypassing the Caspian littoral, in fact, on the lands of Georgia , in the area of ​​the Daryal passage (“Alan Gate”). After that, the Arabs overtook the Khazars - however, the latter successfully evaded the general battle, exhausting the enemy with raids for a full month. Weather played against the Arabs - it rained, turning the earth into slush, completely unusual for Muslims. One of these many episodes of this campaign occurred on Thursday, 8 Jumads of 110 AD (18.09.728 AD) - after it, the Khazar command realized that the outcome of the battles could be a draw at best; abandoning the idea of ​​breaking through to the rich winter pastures, the Khazars retreated to their original lands. Arab historians, on the basis of this retreat, considered that the Arabs nevertheless came out victorious; the campaign itself, due to weather conditions, remained in the annals of history as a " slushy campaign ."

Hisham parted with the chroniclers in evaluating the results of the campaign of Maslama ibn Abdul-Malik, considering the actions of the military leader insufficient. In the year 111 Maslama was removed, al-Jarah b. Was reinstated. Abdallah al-Hakami. The troops under the command of the new chief immediately (that is, in the spring of 729 CE) passed Tiflis , attacked the Khazar city of al-Bayd ^[17] and plundered it. In the fall of the same year, the Khazars launched a counterattack through Azerbaijan, besieging Ardebil ; al-Jarakh had to transfer troops from Barda'a through Bailakan and Varsan - but after the release of Bailakan control over the territory had to be returned to the regions. At the same time, the main forces of the Khazars approached Ardabil; al-Jarrah had to deploy troops a second time and become a camp near Bajravan. There was no time to create fortifications, the Arabs took battle in unprepared positions in the vicinity of Mount Sabalan. The battle lasted three days, during which his army of Arabs was utterly defeated on December 8, 730. e. (about 700 fighters who hid in the mountains survived), and al-Jarah himself died. After the Khazars proceeded to the correct siege of Ardabil - with the use of undermining and stone-throwing machines. Residents of the city decided to surrender to the mercy of the winners - however, it did not follow: all the defenders were killed, women and children were enslaved, and the city itself was thoroughly looted and burned ^{[18] [19] [20]} .

The news of the incident reached the Caliph’s court late - Hisham sent Sa'id al-Harashi to correct the situation when the decisive battle was already given and lost. Al-Kharashi made his way to Arminiyu along the main road through Akhlat , convening volunteers; here, the surviving battles of al-Jarrah joined him. With the arrival of the survivors, the true state of affairs, bordering on disaster, became clear, as a result of which al-Kharashi resorted to accelerated transfer of soldiers in an unusual manner - not on their horses, but on mail mules in small groups ^[21] . The further route of al-Kharashi’s troops is identical to the route of al-Jarrah’s troops: understaffing in Barda'a and speaking to Barsan through Bailakan . In the vicinity of Varsan, the army of al-Kharashi overtook the retreating Khazars, weighed down by prey and captives taken in Ardabil, and made a night attack. Muslim sources disagree on how deeply al-Kharashi’s battles penetrated the enemy’s camp and whether the Khazar commander’s headquarters were reached, however, they agree that the Khazars were forced to retreat, the prisoners were released, and the booty returned ^{[22] [21] [23]} . Further events were complicated by a conflict of interest within the command, the description of which raises questions about the sincerity of the sources.

The following month, Shavval (12/17/730-14/01/7731 AD), the displaced Maslama ibn Abdul-Malik returned to Transcaucasia , the early appearance of which implied a significant degree of his participation in the campaign ^[24] . Before arriving in Barda'a, directly from the road, Maslama sent a notice on the removal of al-Kharashi from the post of governor and the approval of Abdalmalik b. Muslims of al-Ukayil. Moreover, Maslama gave a direct order to the new governor to arrest his predecessor and keep him in shackles before his arrival, Maslama, in Barda'a ^[25] . Arriving at the headquarters, Maslama not only spoke publicly and rudely with al-Kharashi, but also broke the shaft of his command banner ^{[26] [27]} - this was an open challenge and could not remain without punishment. Upon receiving a notice of the incident, Hisham reprimanded Maslama and ordered him to be reinstated as al-Harashi. The description of this incident is presented differently by different sources, which is why a whole series of questions arises.

Most chroniclers, following al-Kufi, claim that al-Kharashi was appointed to his post by direct order of the caliph - thus, all the claims of Maslama against him were unfounded. However, al-Yakubi testifies that al-Kharashi was only the commander of the vanguard of the Maslama army, that is, the latter was not removed from his post by order of the caliph. These versions are mutually exclusive, as a result of which the question of their reliability remains open - up to the route of the army’s movement through Jazira and Arminiyu. There are also differences in the chronology of the campaign: sources cite only two dates. Usually such dating, up to a month or even a day, is customary to believe - however, there are only 37 days between the death of al-Jarrah 8 days before the end of Ramadan and the arrival of Maslama in shawala (even on his last day). Theoretically, the news of the defeat of the army near Ardabil and its redirection of al-Harashi by mail, the winter mountain roads of Arminiyy, is possible; there are even calculations. The distance between extreme points of 1200–1300 km in emergency conditions can be crossed in 7–8 days; make a decision and form a head group in 5 days; express delivery of the group to the destination is possible in 12-15 days; traveling in the usual way that Maslam resorted to would take about 20 days. Even if one accepts such theoretical calculations, one has to admit that Maslam has the intention to appropriate all the glories of victory ^{[28] [29] [25]} .

Conquest of local principalities in the East Caucasus and consolidation in the region

After the defeat of the Khazars near Varsan, Maslamy's army moved to Khairan - the area between Kura and Shirvan . The ruler of the principality raised the population to resistance - however, the forces were obviously unequal, the capital of the principality fell, the defenders were defeated. Maslama resorted to intimidation tactics: all active defenders were executed, all fortifications demolished, and part of the land (probably the property of the ruler) became the estate of Maslama. Repressions were successful: the rulers of the neighboring principalities abandoned the idea of ​​armed resistance and hastened to make peace at the cost of tribute; So the principalities of Shirvan and Muscat reconciled in the lower reaches of Samur . Horseback rides were sent from Muscat to the neighboring principalities lying upstream of Samur, as well as to Lucks , Tabaristan and Filan - all of them returned with peace treaties and tangible symbols of the expression of humility. After that, the Arabs army marched to Derbent.

The main difficulty in the siege of the city was the capture of the citadel, located on a high mountain, also supplied with water through a separate masked water supply. Upon learning of the location of the source from a non-disinterested local resident, Maslama ordered several bulls to be killed in the indicated place and their blood drained into the source. The water that got into the tanks quickly rotted, it became impossible to defend - and one of the nights the Khazars left the citadel ^[30] . Having organized the persecution, Maslama overtook the enemy in the area of Vabandar and, after imposing a battle, forced him to retreat. Chronists do not mention any details of the battle, confining themselves to the standard wording that “Allah sent them to flight” ^[31] . On this victory, Maslama suspended progress in the Transcaucasus and proceeded to consolidate on the ground - Derbent was a fortress capable of blocking the path to Transcaucasia to external opponents (at that time, the Khazars).

About 24 thousand Syrian Arabs were resettled in Derbent with their families - from Damascus , Himsa , Kinnasrin and Jazira . The core of the settlers was the battles of the Maslama army; they all received salaries and rations; the city itself began to turn into a full-fledged fortress - with a provisions storehouse, an arsenal and other attributes. Derbent became the center of not only military power, but also the Islamization of the region - this is where the spread of religion to the North Caucasus began . Maslama b. In the view of the local population, Abdalmalik soon became something of a patron saint of the city - for example, Andalusian travelers who accompanied the caravans around 1131 AD e., testified that in the vicinity of Derbent in the cave kept a sword, as if belonging to Maslam himself. Later, in Dagestan, Maslam b. Abdalmalik turned into a completely legendary figure - Abu Muslim, in the story of which only grains of historical truths appear ^[32] .

In early March 732 AD e. Marlam b replaced Maslama as commander of Arminiai and Azerbaijan . Muhammad b. Marwan - the son of that same Muhammad b. Marvan, who became famous for his unprecedented brutal reprisals against Armenian feudal lords. His name is associated with the biggest successes in the struggle of the Caliphate with the Khazars - primarily because Derbent brought the initial offensive positions of Muslims to the important centers of the Khazar Kaganate .

Central Asia

In the years 727–728, Maslama made a campaign in Central Asia and fought in Sindh ^[3] .