Tibet Status

Empire Yuan

At the beginning of the XI century in Tibet, Khon Konchog Gyalpo founded the Sakya school, which later became the owner of a small principality in the west of Central Tibet, which at the beginning of the XIII century became the center of the unification of Tibet. By this time, the Mongol empire of Yuan subjugated many of Tibet’s neighbors: Xi Xia , Jin , Uigurs , Western Liao . There are several versions of the first contact between the Tibetans and the Mongol empire ^[3] :

1. in 1207, the Tibetans sent ambassadors to the Mongols themselves and submitted to them;
2. Genghis Khan invaded Amdo in 1206, he was met by representatives of the religious and secular nobility of Tibet and expressed their humility to the Mongols to stop the ruin of the country. However, this version has opponents (for example, Stanislav Kuchera, chief researcher at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, professor at Moscow State University) who claim that Tibetans are confused in chronicles with Uyghurs (according to another version, the state is Xi Xia , where Tibetans compactly lived) ^[4] .

It is reliably known that in 1240 the 30-thousandth Mongol army led by Godan invaded Tibet and reached Lhasa . The monks were killed, some monasteries were burned, and their surroundings were looted ^[5] . In 1247, Godan met with Godan, the head of the Sakya Khon Konchog Gyalpo school, to whom Godan gave power over Tibet ^[6] .

Later, Khubilai , who adopted Buddhism in 1253 ^[7] , founded the Yuan Empire and between the emperors in Beijing and the Sakya Tibetan school , which gained power over Tibet from the Mongols, a relationship of faith patron and mentor in the faith developed ^{[8] [9]} .

Tibet was not considered an ordinary part of the empire; it was not on the official list of the territories of the Yuan dynasty. Tibet had a distinctive administrative division, different from the imperial one ^[10] . Under Khubilai, the Tsong-chiyuan administration was created, which governed Tibet and all affairs of Buddhism in the empire, the first head of which was the head of the Sakya Pagpa-lama school ^[11] . In Tibet itself, dissatisfaction was growing with the Sakya school, which was accused of a pro-Mongol position, and then the Mongol court refused its exclusive support ^[12] .

According to Elliot Sperling, head of the Tibetan Indian University program, Tibet, according to the rules and laws of the Yuan Dynasty, was not an independent state, but the dynasty did not have de facto control over Tibet ^[13] .

Empire Min

In 1368, the Mongol Yuan Dynasty was overthrown and the Ming Empire was proclaimed ^[14] .

From the 15th century in Tibet a gradual decline in the influence of the Sakya school ^{[15] began} , and by the middle of the 16th century the most influential school was the Galug school ^[16] . Tibetan lamas begin mutually beneficial cooperation with the Tumetan Altan Khan: the lamas sought to spread Buddhism, and Altan Khan - to legalize and strengthen their power ^[17] . Then Altan Khan granted Sonam Gyatso the title of the Dalai Lama ^[18] , and after his death, the grandson of Altan Khan became the new reincarnate of the Dalai Lama ^[19] .

By the end of the 16th century, the confrontation between the Karmapa-Kagyupa and Galug schools intensified in Tibet. The Mongols, whose units entered Tibet, sided with the latter ^[20] . Then, the Oirats and Dzhungars on the side of the Galug and the Khalkha-Mongols on the side of the Karmapa-Kagyupa enter the confrontation ^[21] . As a result, the Galug school won, and Gushi Khan, who headed the Dzungar corps, received the title of Khan of Faith (Guardian of Buddhism) from the Dalai Lama ^[22] .

Since the end of the 16th century, the Ming Empire had no influence on what was happening in Tibet, and only occasional trips of Tibetan lamas to Nanjing calmed the Minsk authorities ^[23] .

Qing Empire

By the middle of the 17th century , the Ming Empire was conquered by the Manchu Qing Dynasty ^[23] .

The relations between the Qing emperors and the Dalai Lamas , who ruled Tibet since the 17th century , were personal ^[9] . According to Chinese data, between Tibet and the Qing Empire there were relations between a subordinate and a lord ^[27] .

After the introduction of Chinese troops and ambans at the beginning of the 18th century , the Qing Empire established control over Tibet ^[9] . In 1793, a golden ballot box was brought to Lhasa, and the Manchu emperor Qianlong ordered that the Dalai Lamas and Panchen Lam be elected by lot from the ballot box with the participation of Qing ambans. But such a procedure was not always used and did not cancel the traditional Tibetan methods ^[28] .

The end of the 18th century became the apotheosis of the real power of the Qing Empire over Tibet: the procedure for electing the Dalai Lamas and the Panchen Lamas with the help of a golden urn, when the Amban pulled out a ticket from it with the name of a new degenerate, symbolized the supreme power of the empire over Tibet ^[28] .

In the XIX century, the power of the Qing Empire over Tibet began to weaken with the weakening of the empire itself ^[29] . For almost the entire 19th century , real power both in governing the country and in religion did not belong to the Dalai Lamas, but to regents under them ^[30] .

By the beginning of the 20th century, Tibet remained dependent on the Qing Empire. In Lhasa, there were Qing ambans who controlled the military and financial spheres of Tibet's life. The Dalai Lama annually, and since 1840 every three years, sent an embassy to Beijing with gifts. However, Tibet was a special part of the Empire. So, in its territory the general empire taxes were not levied and Qing land possessions were absent. Tibet had its own administrative system, and the Tibetan nobility controlled all the land. The dependence of Tibet on China, first of all, was expressed in the dependence of the Dalai Lama on the Qing emperor ^[9] .

From the end of the 19th century, China began to pursue a policy of turning Tibet from a vassal to a province in China. This policy came up against the resistance of the majority of the population of Tibet, led by the Dalai Lama XIII ^[31] .

By the beginning of the XX century, according to the description of Chinese sources, Tibet was more likely to be feudally dependent on the Qing empire than was considered an important part of the empire ^[13] .

Sino-English Convention on Tibet and India

In 1906, the "Sino-English Convention on Tibet and India" was signed, in fact recognizing Tasset's vassal dependence on China. The Qing Empire began to pay indemnities to the UK instead of Tibet ^[32] .

1907 Russian-English Convention

The Russian-English convention of 1907, signed without the participation of Tibet and the Qing Empire, introduced the concept of China's suzerainty over Tibet, although Tibet did not take a vassal oath to the Qing emperor and rejected China's suzerainty. The Tibetan authorities rejected this convention. ^[33] The position of modern China is to recognize the convention illegitimate due to the non-participation of the Chinese side in its adoption ^[34] , as well as the substitution of Chinese sovereignty over Tibet for suzerainty .

Thus, the Sino-English Convention on Tibet and India and the Russian-English Convention were first recorded in international treaties of China's rights to Tibet ^[32] . Some modern researchers (for example, the lawyer and adviser to the Dalai Lama XIV Michael van Walt van Praagh ) the conventions of 1906 and 1907 are considered illegitimate in the part concerning Tibet, since they were signed without his participation and the government did not recognize them ^{[35] [ 36]} .

The capture of Lhasa by Chinese forces

Designated in 1906 as the second ambassador in Lhasa, Zhao Er-feng in the southeastern part of Tibet, Kame , began to abolish the original Tibetan administrative system and replace it with a common imperial one. Then this part of Tibet was completely occupied by the Chinese 60,000th army under the leadership of Zhao Er-feng, and in 1910 it was decided to create the Xikang province on this territory and began its colonization by the Chinese ^[37] .

In 1909 , Chinese troops captured Chamdo , and in early 1910 was captured by Lhasa and the Dalai Lama XIII, who returned to the city in December 1909 , had to flee to India . The seizure was accompanied by violence and robbery ^[38] .

Republic of China

In 1911, an uprising of soldiers took place in the city of Wuchang, led by the organization Tongmenhoy ^[39] . This uprising was the beginning of the Xinhai Revolution , the goal and end result of which was the overthrow of the ruling Manchu dynasty and the proclamation of the Republic of China ^[40] .

During the creation of the Republic of China, revolutionaries, to include all the lands of the disintegrated Qing empire and dependent states, created the concept of the five nationalities of China ^[41] . Subsequently, Tibet was equated with the Chinese province ^[42] .

Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China

On April 12, 1912, President of the Republic of China Yuan Shikai issued the “Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China,” in which Mongolia, East Turkestan, and Tibet were declared an integral part of the Republic of China. In the same month, he sent troops to Tibet to help the Chinese garrisons, but under pressure from Britain , which refused to recognize the Republic of China until the military campaign in Tibet was stopped, in August 1912, Yuan Shikai deployed troops. In 1913, a Parliament was formed in Beijing, in which there were also representatives of supposedly Tibet, who in fact were Tibetans from the interior of China ^[43] .

Chinese Army Leaving Tibet

In 1912, clashes between supporters and opponents of China began in Tibet ^[44] . By the end of this year, with the mediation of a Nepalese representative, a conciliation agreement was signed between the warring parties in Tibet, according to which all Chinese troops, except for the personal protection of the Amban, were to leave the country, and their weapons and ammunition remained in Lhasa . In 1913, the last Chinese soldiers left Tibet and the institution of the Ambans was abolished by China ^[44] .

Mongolian-Tibetan Treaty

In 1911, Outer Mongolia declared its independence ^[44] . After independence was declared by Outer Mongolia and recognized by the Russian Empire , the Mongol-Tibet Treaty was concluded on January 11, 1913, in which the parties mutually recognized each other's independence. This treaty was not recognized by the Russian Empire and Great Britain ^[45] . Some modern scholars point out that recognition of the treaty by third countries was not required ^[46] .

Independence Period

Tibetan Independence

On January 23, 1913, the Dalai Lama XIII issued a Declaration of Independence stating that throughout history, China and Tibet have cooperated on the basis of a patron and priest relationship, and that relations between Tibet and China are not based on submission to one another. In it, the Tibetans were called an independent and religious nation , which has to work to protect their independent country ^[47] .

From that moment until the establishment of power in the PRC , Tibet was considered a de facto independent state ruled by the Dalai Lama. China does not recognize this independence ^[13] .

According to the conclusion of the International Commission of Jurists , published in 1959, Tibet in 1912-1951 was an independent and sovereign state ^[48] .

Simla Convention

Under pressure from Great Britain , the Chinese government in March 1913 took part in negotiations with the Tibetan authorities in Chamdo , but negotiations were soon interrupted and continued only in October 1913 in Simla with the participation of Great Britain. In March 1914, the Tibetan and English delegations agreed on the Tibetan-Indian border and exchanged notes . In April 1914, the heads of the Chinese, Tibetan and English delegations initialed the English version of the convention, the second article of which read ^[43] :

Despite the alleged division of Tibet into External and Internal, geographically and politically, Tibet, according to the convention, remained a single state ^[49] . The main differences were related to the border of Outer and Inner Tibet. The Chinese delegation did not agree with the border established by the English version and, as a result, refused to sign the convention ^[50] .

USSR and Tibet

In the 1920s, several secret missions from Moscow to Lhasa and vice versa took place. In 1925, G.V. Chicherin tried to organize a permanent diplomatic mission of the USSR in Tibet, and in 1926 the diplomatic mission of the MPR. However, the Dalai Lama XIII rejected these proposals ^[51] .

1934 Sino-Tibetan negotiations

On August 25, 1934, the special ambassador of the Chinese government in Nanjing, Huang Musun, arrived in Lhasa. He was greeted with kindness, paid tribute to the deceased Dalai Lama ^[52] and arranged for the stay of two Chinese officers with a radio transmitter in Lhasa who were supposed to keep in touch with Nanking ^[53] .

At the talks, Huang Musun demanded that the Tibetan government recognize Tibet as part of the Republic of China as an autonomy, as well as transfer foreign policy , defense and communications, as well as the right to approve top officials to the introduction of China. ^[54] The authorities of Tibet put forward the following conditions: important agreements between Tibet and another state should be concluded with the consent of China; Lhasa agreed to notify Nanjing of the appointment of senior officials or the election of a regent; Tibetan authorities demanded that certain areas in Kama and Amdo be returned to their jurisdiction ^[55] . One of the main requirements of the Tibetan government was guarantees from China that Tibet would not be turned into an ordinary province . Thus, Tibet agreed to be a state dependent on China ^[55] . По мнению Василия Богословского, это было связано с желанием Лхасы урегулировать пограничные вопросы ^[56] .

В ходе переговоров не было заключено никаких официальных соглашений ^[53] .

World War II

В годы Второй мировой войны Тибет придерживался нейтралитета, показав свою способность следовать внешней политике неприсоединения и независимости ^[57] . К моменту роспуска Лиги наций, ни один из её членов не признавал независимость Тибета ^[58] .

Китайская Народная Республика

В 1946 году на территории Китая началась гражданская война между Гоминьданом и Коммунистической партией Китая , перевес в которой, со временем, переходил на сторону КПК. Обе силы считали Тибет частью Китая ^[59] . К 1949 году победа КПК в гражданской войне стала очевидной, и уже в июле 1949 года тибетское правительство выслало членов гоминданьской миссии, а также всех китайцев, проживающих в Тибете, и закрыло китайскую школу ^[60] . 2 сентября агентство Синьхуа объявило ^[61] :

1 октября 1949 года была официально провозглашена Китайская Народная Республика ^[62] .

Азиатская конференция в Дели

В 1947 году тибетская делегация была приглашена на Азиатскую конференцию в Дели , организованную партией Индийский национальный конгресс. В день открытия конференции был поднят в том числе и флаг Тибета, а на карте, вывешенной в зале заседаний, Тибет обозначался как независимое государство. После протестов китайской делегации, на карте Тибет был включён в состав Китая, но тибетской делегации разрешили продолжить самостоятельно участвовать в работе ^[63] .

Делегация Шакабпа

В октябре 1947 года под руководством цзэпёна Шакабпа в Индию , Китай , Великобританию и США была направлена официальная тибетская делегация. Основной задачей делегации было установление официальных отношений между Тибетом, как независимым государством, и перечисленными странами. Делегация была принята Махатмой Ганди и Джавахарлалом Неру в Индии, Чан Кайши в Китае, Джорджем Маршаллом в США и Клементом Эттли в Великобритании. Переговоры об установлении официальных отношений не имели результатов ^[65] .

По поводу принятия тибетской делегации в МИД США и Индии Китай направил официальный протест. В ответ на это США заявили, что считают Тибет частью Китая ^[61] .

Дипломатические отношения Тибета

По данным Майкла ван Вальта ван Праага , в 1949 году, при вступлении в ООН, Непал указал Тибет как одну из шести стран с которыми у него были дипломатические отношения ^[66] .

В октябре 1949 года регент при малолетнем Далай-ламе XIV заявил о независимости Тибета и обратился к мировому сообществу с просьбой о помощи, но помощи так и не получил ^{[62] [67]} . С просьбой поддержать вступление Тибета в ООН Кашаг призвал Великобританию , США и Индию, однако получил отказ в связи с тем, что постоянные члены СБ ООН Китай и СССР наложили бы вето на такое решение ^[68] .

Установление власти КНР в Тибете

7 октября 1950 года части НОАК, численностью около 40 тысяч человек ^[69] , вошли в Тибет из Цинхая и Синьцзяна ^[70] .

7 ноября Тибет направил в адрес Генерального секретаря ООН обращение с призывом остановить китайскую агрессию ^[71] :

Во время обсуждения тибетского вопроса в ООН Великобритания, а за ней Индия и США предложили отложить обсуждение вопроса, что и было сделано. На просьбу Тибета направить комиссию ООН для расследования ответа не поступило ^[71] .

Соглашение из 17 пунктов

В марте 1951 года Далай-ламой была сформирована новая делегация для переговоров с Китаем. Возглавил её отпущенный из плена губернатор Кама Нгапо Нгаванг Джигме . В переговорах принял участие и Панчен-лама X ^[72] .

3 мая 1951 года, несмотря на то, что Нгапо Нгаванг Джигме не имел полномочий от Кашага на принятия самостоятельных решений (хотя сам утверждал обратное) ^[73] , было подписано «Соглашение между Центральным народным правительством Китая и местным тибетским правительством о мероприятиях по мирному освобождению Тибета», предъявленный в ультимативной форме для подписания. От имени тибетской делегации соглашение подписал глава делегации Нгапо Нгаван Джигме, а также несколько других членов делегации ^[74] . Как утверждает Далай-лама XIV, у делегации не было государственных печатей, необходимых для заключения договора. В Пекине были изготовлены дубликаты государственных печатей, которые и были приложены к соглашению ^[75] .

Подписанное соглашение состояло из 17 статей, основные из которых ^[72] :

К соглашению прилагалось секретное дополнение, в котором, согласно тибетской версии, гарантировалось сохранение власти и положения Далай-ламы если он покинет Тибет и вернётся в течение 4-5 лет; полное обеспечение Далай-ламы тибетским правительством в это время; 20-тысячная китайская армия будет размещена на границах Тибета, а при войсках НОАК в Тибете будут 1-2 тибетских министра в ранге заместителей командующего ^[76] .

Реорганизация территории Тибета

Since 1950, Tibetan national autonomies were created in the eastern regions of Tibet in the Chinese provinces of Qinghai , Gansu , Sichuan and Yunnan ^[77] , and in 1965 the Tibet Autonomous Region of the PRC was formed in the rest of Tibet ^[78] .

Middle Way

During the visit of the Dalai Lama XIV to the United States in 1987, the US Department of State emphasized that the United States, like all other UN member states , did not recognize Tibet as an independent state ^[79] .

There, the Dalai Lama put forward a peace plan, consisting of 5 points ^{[80] [81]} :

1. identify Tibet as a zone of peace;
2. stop the mass relocation of Chinese to its territory;
3. restore respect for democratic norms and human rights in the region;
4. preserve the unique ecology of Tibet;
5. stop storage and production of nuclear weapons and materials on its territory.

For this plan, the Dalai Lama XIV won the Nobel Prize in 1989 ^[80] .

China ignored the offer of the Dalai Lama ^[81] . According to the Chinese side, the essence of the middle way is changing the legal status of Tibet and denying the sovereignty of the central government of China over Tibet, and the peace plan itself has two key points ^[82] :

1. “A large area of ​​compact Tibetans”, which will occupy a quarter of the territory of the PRC ;
2. “High degree of autonomy”, implying a ban on the deployment of the PLA army and allowing Tibet to maintain diplomatic relations with other countries.

In 1988, the Dalai Lama XIV expressed the view that Tibet could be a "self-governing democratic political unit in association with the PRC." The Chinese government agreed to negotiate, but not on the independence of Tibet, but on the return of the Dalai Lama XIV and its status, but negotiations did not take place ^[79] .

Third Tibet Workshop

In 1994, the third meeting on work in Tibet was held, chaired by the head of the State Council of the PRC, Li Peng ^[83] . One of the decisions adopted at the meeting was the struggle against separatism and the influence of the Dalai Lama ^[84] . In 1998, Tibetan Ragdy , Chairman of the Standing Committee of the TAR National Assembly, demanded that those who sympathize with the Dalai Lama be cleared of the party. In addition, he proposed removing photographs of the Dalai Lama from everywhere, including from homes, and returning Tibetan students from schools and universities sponsored by the Dalai Lama from India. For failure to comply, he was expelled from the party and dismissed ^[85] .

Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics

In 2008, the Olympic Games were held in Beijing. During the Olympic torch relay, aggressive protests were held demanding independence for Tibet, which is why the Olympic flame often traveled the world under police protection. Many Western leaders have threatened to boycott the Olympics if China does not begin negotiations with the Dalai Lama ^{[86] [87]} . The Dalai Lama XIV himself opposed the boycott of the Olympics ^[88] .

A few weeks before the Olympics, the Dalai Lama met with the Chinese authorities, but observers rated the meeting as a show to reassure the public. In their opinion, China does not intend to grant autonomy to Tibet ^[13] .

There are three main points of view on the independence of Tibet ^[13] :

1. Independent state. This view is held by exiled Tibetans, most human rights organizations, many supporters of the Tibetan Independence Movement, a number of researchers, and possibly ^[13] , most Tibetans living in China;
2. Refusal of the struggle for independence and consent to “genuine autonomy” if China satisfies a number of requirements of the Tibetan side ^[89] . This view is held by the Dalai Lama XIV ;
3. Part of the PRC since the Yuan Dynasty . This is the official point of view of the PRC government and any calls for autonomy or independence are considered by him as an attempt to dismember the country. This position is supported by most Chinese.

Public opinion outside the PRC, especially in Western countries, is inclined in favor of the independence or broad autonomy of Tibet ^[90] . However, the PRC and many Chinese people accuse the Western media and supporters of Tibet of distorted romanticization of Tibet as an earthly paradise until 1950. Most scholars and the PRC believe that Tibet was feudal until 1950, and the myth of non-violent society is refuted by numerous wars in which Tibetan troops have participated since the 17th century ^[13] .

During his press conference, Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Jiang Yu said that China has been controlling Tibet since the 13th century and Tibet has never been an independent state, and the Tibetan issue is an internal affair of the PRC ^[91] . Some observers believe that the PRC’s policy is to wait for the death of the Dalai Lama XIV and his rebirth. Since the Panchen Lama , who is now under the control of the PRC, takes a large part in the choice of a new Dalai Lama, this will also allow controlling a new degenerate. In addition, according to experts, the PRC government fears that, if Tibet obtains autonomy, other ethnic and religious groups may demand similar rights, and this may lead to the division of the country ^[13] .

Currently, no state recognizes the independence of Tibet ^[92] , considering it part of the PRC ^[58] . However, it is not specified whether this means recognition of the PRC legal rights to Tibet or recognition of the de facto power of the PRC over Tibet ^[13] . Governments and heads of the western states strive to maintain positive relations with China, therefore they carefully approach the issue of the status of Tibet, try to refrain from involvement in Tibetan affairs, but at the same time they do not impede legislative bodies, public and international organizations in this. ^{[93] [94]}

The United States Department of State Act, signed by President George W. Bush in 1991, contains a number of provisions on Tibet, including: “As understood by the Tibet Congress, it includes areas previously included in the Chinese provinces of Sichuan , Yunnan , Gansu and Qinghai - is an occupied country according to recognized principles of international law ... The true representatives of Tibet are the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government in exile, as recognized by the Tibetan people ” ^[95] . The international company and the Tibetan lobby were able to make the Tibetan issue an integral part of Sino-US relations, but only as an irritant and only on human rights issues ^[96] .

Many Tibetans, especially outside of Tibet, consider Tibet an occupied state ^[90] . The vast majority of Chinese consider Tibet to be part of the PRC ^[13] .

In his article on the attitude of Western media to the PRC on the eve of the Beijing Olympics, Professor of the Department of East Asian Politics at the University of Daisburg-Essen, Ph.D. Thomas Heberer writes, not a single country in the world has declared Tibet an occupied state ^[58] .

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