Toponym

Among the toponyms, various classes are distinguished, such as:

• Oronyms - names of elevated landforms (mountains, ranges, peaks, hills);
  • Speleonyms - names of natural underground formations;
• Khoronim - names of any territories, regions, districts;
  • Administrative burial
  • Natural bury
• Urbanonyms - names of intracity objects;
  • Agoronyms - names of areas ;
  • Hodonyms - street names;
  • City bury
• Dromonyms - names of communication lines;
• Oikonyms - names of populated places;
  • Astionyms - city names;
  • Synonyms - names of rural settlements;
• Hydronyms - geographical names of water bodies, including:
  • Helonyms - names of swamps, wetlands;
  • Limnonyms - names of lakes ;
  • Oceanonyms are the names of the oceans ;
  • Pelagonyms are the names of the seas ;
  • Potamonyms - names of rivers ;
• Insulonyms - names of islands ;
• Agro -names - the names of cultivated land: arable land, fields, etc .;
• Drimonyms (from other Greek. Δρυμός “oak grove, forest, grove” + ὄνομα “name, name”) - the names of forests, groves, hogs ^[4] .

Other terms

• quasitoponyms are potential words of a language reminiscent of toponyms in terms of lexical content and word-formation model, used as names of fictional geographical objects ^[5] ( Mukhosransk );
• microtoponyms - the names of small objects ( land , tracts , hayfields , pastures , swamps, cutting areas , fires , pastures , wells , keys , whirlpools , rapids , etc., usually known only to a limited circle of people living in a certain area);
• anthropotoponyms - names of geographical objects formed on behalf of a person,
• neotonyms - a deliberate change in the name of a toponym in order to clarify the characteristics of a real existing object; in the broad sense, any change in the name of the object (or the return of the old name) is a name that must be consistent with the previous name, which is especially true for the names of cities, streets, and also states.

In toponyms (especially hydronyms), archaisms and dialectisms are steadily preserved, they often go back to the substrate languages ​​of the peoples who lived in this territory in the past, which allows them to be used to determine the boundaries of the settlement of ethnic communities (for example, Slavs in Europe or Turkic peoples and ethnic groups in Ukraine).

The practical transcription of place names, establishing their original and uniform spelling and transmission in other languages, is important for mapping .

Among the stylistically differentiated variants of toponyms, the most numerous are toponyms-colloquialisms, toponyms- poets , toponymic periphrases .

The name of a geographical object, used in the application function with generic geographical terms, city , village , village , farm , river , etc., is consistent with the defined word, that is, it is declined if the toponym is Russian, Slavic or has long been borrowed and mastered by the Russian language ^{[6 ]} .

Correct: in the city of Moscow (not in the city of Moscow ) ^[7] , in the city of St. Petersburg , near the city of Ishimbaya , from the city of Kiev , above the city of Paris ; to the village of Petrovka , under the Mikhailovsky farm ; on the island of Valaam , on the banks of the Volga River , on Cape Verde (not on Cape Zeleny ), the valley of the Sukhoi stream (not the valley of the Sukhoi stream ).

Geographical names used in combination with a generic word are usually not inclined if:

• the name in its form corresponds to the plural : in the city of Velikiye Luki , in the city of Berezhany ;
• the genus of the generalizing term does not coincide with the genus of the proper name: in the village of Ugljanets , on Lake Baikal .

The latter does not apply to combinations with the word city . Correct: from the city of Samara , in the city of Moscow ^[7] . Option in the city of Moscow does not meet the literary norm ^[6] .

Toponyms of the middle kind, which are applications and ending in -e, -o , do not lean: between the villages of Molodechno and Dorozhno, to the city of Grodno , from the city of Vidnoe (this does not apply to the names in -ovo, -ёvo, -evo, -ino, -you ).

Correct: in Velikie Luki, in Ugljanets, from Vidnoye, but: in Velikiye Luki, in the village of Ugljanets, from Vidnoye.

Russian and other Slavic place names na -ov (o), -ev (o), -ev (o), -in (o), -yn (o) are traditionally inclined ^[6] : the church in Ostashkov , the station in Venev , the old a city in Lublin , a television tower in Ostankino , a cottage in Peredelkino , a highway to Strogin , construction in Novokosin , a route from Lublin , a polytechnic college in Kolpin . Remember M. Yu. Lermontov : No wonder that all of Russia remembers Borodin's day!

In the 20th century, there was a tendency to use the non-declining variant of the names in -ovo, -evo, -evo, -ino, -no , which is now considered acceptable: in Lublin and in Lublin , in the direction of Strogin and in the direction of Strogino , in Ivanovo and in Ivanovo , from Prostokvashin and from Prostokvashino , to Kosovo and to Kosovo . In this case, the incline option corresponds to the internal laws of the Russian language and corresponds to the literary norm ^[6] . In the XXI century, there is a return to the traditional norm.

Names in the form of a full adjective , as a rule, are declined ^[8] : in the city of Zheleznodorozhny , on Red Square , on Zeleny Prospekt (not on Zeleny Prospekt ), on Lake Ladoga , along the White River , in the Barguzinsky Reserve , on the Gydan Peninsula , on Russian island , in the Strait of Mozambique , in the Silesian Voivodeship .

Russian-speaking

• city ​​- ( Kaliningrad , Volgograd , Novograd-Volynsky )
• city - ( Ivangorod , Uzhgorod , Novgorod , Belgorod , Mirgorod )
• mouth - the mouth of the river ( Ust-Luga , Ust-Kamenogorsk , Ustyug )
• Yam - Yamskaya, postal ( Yam-Tyosovo , Gavrilov-Yam )
• Yar - a steep, elevated coast ( Krasny Yar , Krasnoyarsk )

German-speaking

• au / aue ( German au, aue ) - river valley ( Spandau , Auerbach )
• berg ( german berg ) - mountain ( Königsberg , Kreuzberg )
• burg ( German burg ) - fortress, castle ( Hamburg , Orenburg )
• gof / hof ( German hof ) - courtyard ( Peterhof , Tempelhof )
• Dorf ( German: Dorf) - village ( Dusseldorf , Mariendorf )
• stadt, stett, stedt ( German: stadt, stätt, stedt, städt ) - city, place ( Kronstadt , Eichstett , Reinstedt )
• rode / genus ( German rode, roda ) - settlement on the site of deforestation ( Wernigerode )
• feld / felde ( German: feld, felde ) - field, meadow ( Marienfelde , Bielefeld )
• Furth ( German: furth, furt ) - ford ( Schweinfurt , Furth im Wald , Klagenfurt )
• Hausen ( German: Hausen ) - House ( Sachsenhausen , Schönhausen )
• Hafen ( German haven ) - harbor, port ( Bremerhaven , Ludwigshafen )

• aber ( eng. aber , from brit. ) - mouth, merger ( Aberystwyth , Aberdeen )
• Burn, Bourne - burn, small river ( Blackburn , Bournemouth , Eastbourne )
• borough, bro, burg, berry ( born borough / head / burgh / bury ) - fortified settlement, fort ( Scarborough , Middlesbrough , Edinburgh , Canterbury )
• bridge ( English bridge ) - bridge ( Cambridge )
• Valley / Valley ( English Valley ) - valley, hollow ( West Valley City , Squaw Valley , Apple Valley , Valley )
• dale ( eng. dale ) - valley, plot for rent, garden ( Rochdale )
• inver ( Eng. inver , from Goyd. ) - mouth, merger ( Inverness )
• Caster, Chester, STER ( English caster / chester / cester ) - from lat. castra , camp, fortification ( Lancaster , Manchester , Gloucester , Leicester )
• kil ( Eng. kil , from Gelsk. cill ) - monastic cell, the old church ( Kilmarnock , Kilkenny )
• land ( English land ) - land ( Rutland , Portland )
• pool ( English pool ) - harbor ( Blackpool , Hartlepool , Liverpool )
• Stoke ( eng. stoke ) - farm, homestead ( Stoke-on-Trent , Stoke-Mandeville )
• town ( English town ) - town, town ( Georgetown )
• tone ( Eng. ton ) - homestead, estate, estate ( Bolton , Brighton , Paddington )
• Thorp ( eng.Torpe, thorp , from other English þorp ) - early settlement, hamlet ( Scunthorpe )
• field ( English field ) - a field cleared from a forest glade ( Sheffield , Chesterfield )
• Ford ( English Ford, forth ) - Broad ( Oxford )
• hill ( English hill ) - a hill ( Notting Hill , Ben Hill )
• ham / gem / shem / em / um ( English ham ) - farmstead, farm ( , Buckingham , Louis , Rotherham , Newham )
• Avon ( born Avon , from Wall. Afon ) - River ( Avon )

See also appendices 1 and 2.

Hispanic

• alto ( Spanish alto ) - upper ( Alto Parana , Alto Lucero )
• viola ( Spanish alta ) - upper ( Alta-Ribagorsa , Ribera-Alta )
• Baha ( Spanish baja ) - lower ( Baha-California , Plan-Baha , Baha-Verapas )
• villa ( spanish villa ) - town, village ( Villa Alegre , Villa de Zaragoza )
• grande ( Spanish: grande ) - large, great ( Rio Grande , Cochoapa el Grande , Cucilla Grande )
• isla ( spanish isla ) - island ( Isla Mayor , Isla del Carmen )
• Cabo ( Spanish cabo ) - Cape ( Cabo San Lucas , San Jose del Cabo )
• campo ( Spanish campo ) - field ( Campo Charro , Campo de San Pedro )
• cruz ( Spanish cruz ) - cross ( Puerto la Cruz , Santa Cruz )
• Largo ( Spanish Lango) - Long ( Cerro Largo , Largo del Sur )
• Major ( Spanish: Mayor ) - Larger, Elder, Chief ( Isla Mayor , Carbonero El Major )
• menor ( sp. menor ) - small, smaller ( Mar Menor , Menorca )
• black ( Spanish negro ) - black ( Rio Negro , Guerrero Negro , Cerro Negro )
• nuevo ( Spanish: nuevo ) - new ( Nuevo Leon , Nuevo Berlin , Camero Nuevo )
• Nueva ( Spanish: Nueva) - New ( Nueva Esparta , Sevilla la Nueva )
• Playa ( Spanish: Playa ) - Beach ( Playa del Carmen , Playa Giron )
• punta ( Spanish punta ) - cape, ledge, tip ( Punta Cana , Punta del Diablo )
• Puente ( Spanish: Puente ) - Bridge ( Puente del Congosto , Puente la Reina )
• Puerto ( Spanish: Puerto ) - Port ( Puerto Rico , Puerto Vallarta )
• rio ( spanish río ) - river ( Rio Grande , Torres del Rio )
• san / santo (spanish san, santo ) - holy ( San Jose , Santo Domingo )
• santa ( spanish santa ) - holy ( Santa Barbara , Santa Maria )
• Cerro ( Spanish cerro ) - hill, mountain ( Cerro Azul , Cerro Bravo , Cerro Largo )
• Sierra ( Spanish: Sierra ) - Mountain Range ( Sierra Maestra , Sierra Morena , Sierra Madre )
• Ciudad ( Spanish: ciudad ) - City ( Ciudad Juarez , Ciudad del Plata )
• Tierra ( Spanish: Tierra ) - land ( Tierra Amarilla , Tierra de Campos ), plural. h. Tierras ( Spanish: Tierras ) - land ( Tierras Altas , Tierras del Burgo )
• Fuente ( Spanish: Fuente ) - fountain, source, spring ( Fuente Vaqueros , Fuente de Piedra )

Portuguese-

• altu ( port. alto ) - upper ( Altu-Alentejo )
• alta ( port. alta ) - upper ( Ponti Alta do Norte , Cunha Alta )
• Ilya ( port. ilha ) - island ( Ilya-Grandi , Ilheus )
• cabo ( port. cabo ) - cape ( Cabo Frio , Cape Verde - established)
• nova ( port. nova ) - new ( Vila Nova di Gaya , Nova Lima )
• praia ( port. praia ) - beach ( Praia , Praia Grande )
• port ( port. porto ) - port ( Porto , Porto Alegre )
• rio ( port. rio ) - river ( Rio Branco , Rio de Janeiro - established)
• san ( port. são ) - saint ( Sao Paulo )
• terra ( port. terra ) - land ( Terra-Alta )

Iranian speakers

• abad ^[9] - prosperous, well-maintained (city) ( Islamabad , Hyderabad )
• kand - city ( Samarkand ) (kent - Turkic form: Tashkent )
• about (ab, ap) - ( Ob (presumably), Varzob )

Turkic

• agay, agach, agagagach - tree ( Kosh-Agach ), Saryagash
• ak - white ^{[10] [11]} ; pier - grave ( Akmola )
• alma - apple ( Almaty ), Almalyk )
• Altyn - gold, gold ( Altıntash , Altıntu )
• balyk - fish, fish ( Karabalyk , Balaklava )
• bash - head, main ( Bashkortostan , Karabash )
• dag - mountain ( Ayudag , Karadag , Ulug-Dag )
• elga - river ^[12] ( Koelga , Sak-Elga )
• Kara - Black ( Karatau )
• stake, kul, hol, koyul - lake ( Issyk-Kul )
• kum - sand, desert ( Kyzylkum , Karakum )
• Kyzyl - Red ( Kyzyl )
• sary - yellow ( Saryozek , Saratov - from the words of sary + tau)
• su (sug) - water, river ( Mras-Su )
• tau - mountain ( Yamantau )
• tash (dash, tas) - stone ( Tashkent )
• temir, thimer - iron ( Temirtau )
• Yana, Zhana - new ( Yanaul ), ( Zhanatas )
• chishma - spring ( Chishma bash , Chishmy )
• har - snow or ice ( Harabad )

Mongolian

• goal - river, valley ( Khalkhin-Gol , Khi-Gol )
• Gorhon - stream
• arshan - healing source
• muren ( bour. mүren , mong. mөrөn ) - river (large)
• nuur - lake ( Kukunur , Hulun-Nur )
• Bulag - spring
• Ugun (Usun) ( Bur. Uһan , Mong. Us ) - water
• daban - pass
• pity (yalga) - ravine ( Sagan-Zhalgay )
• hushuu (n) - cape, ledge
• hada - mountain
• sardag (sardyk) ( bur. һardag ) - char ( Munku-Sardyk )
• hot - city ( Hohhot )
• hara - black ( Haragun )
• Shara - yellow ( Sharagol )
• Sagaan (Tsagan) - White
• Ulaan - Red ( Ulan-Ude )
• borough gray
• Hoyto - North ( Hoyto-Oka )
• urda - south ( Urda Oka )
• zүүn - eastern
• baruun - western
• deed - upper
• dunda - medium
• dodo - lower
• hehe - big
• bug - small
• sene - new ^[13]

Tunguso-Manchu

• Bira - river ( Bureya )
• yukte - key, spring
• amut - lake
• Buga - area, hill ( Boguchany , Bukachacha )
• mu - water ( muya )
• kuta - quagmire ( Ust-Kut )
• amnunda - glade (according to other sources - ice)
• dawan - pass
• Inga ( Evenk. Iӈa ) - sand, pebbles
• kocho - river bend
• marakta - a shoot of a low birch
• ay - a beautiful, good place
• ayan - the old woman, the bay ( Ayan )
• Arba - stranded
• ollo - fish
• Nehru - Grayling ( Neryungri ) ^[13]

Yenisei-

• ses, zas, set, shet, odd, tet ( ket. ses , cott . šet , arin. set , pump. tet ) - river ( Tayshet , Teguldet )
• ul, kul ( ket. ul , assan. ul , arin. kul ) - water

Finnish and Karelian

• yoki ( fin. joki , karel. jogi ) - river
• musta ( fin. musta , karel. mustu ) - black
• meshes ( fin. mäki , karel. mägi ) - hill
• saari ( fin. saari , karel. suari ) - island (Suisar, Shushary )
• suo ( Finnish , Karel. suo ) - swamp (Suojärvi)
• järvi ( fin. järvi , karel. jarvi ) - lake (Petäjärvi)
• Ranta ( Fin. ranta , Karel. randu ) - coast ( Lappeenranta )
• pohya ( Fin. pohja , Karel. pohju ) (russified version of “poga”) - bottom, base / north ( Lahdenpohja ; Kondopoga )
• lahti ( fin. lahti ) - bay
• suckers - salmon

Latvian

• Akmens - stone (Cape Akmenrags - Cape Kamenny Rog)
• Augsts - high ( Augshzemze - Upper land)
• mane - mouth ( Daugavgriva - Daugava estuary (Dvina), Ust-Dvinsk (microdistrict in Riga))
• kallns - mountain, hill ( Ziepniekkalns - Mylovarov Mountain)
• Mez - forest ( Mezaparks - Forest Park)
• muiza - farmstead, farm (Zakyumuiza - hare farmstead)
• Pils - castle, city (as derived from the castle) ( Daugavpils - City on the Daugava (Dvina))
• sala - island ( Zakusala - Hare island)
• upe - river ( Lielupe - Big river)
• ciems - village ( Mezhciems - Forest village)
• Esers - Lake (Lake Baltezers - White Lake)

Japanese

• -hama ( -hama , 浜) for the beach, for example Hamamatsu ;
• -hanto ( -hantō , 半島) for the peninsula, for example, Izu hanto ;
• -isi ( -ishi , 石) or -iva ( -iwa , 岩) for rock, for example, Ishikawa Prefecture , Iwate Prefecture ;
• -izumi (-izumi, 泉) for sources, for example, Hiraizumi ;
• -kaykyo: (-kaikyō, 海峡) for the strait, for example, Bungo ;
• -kava ( -kawa , 川) or -gava ( -gawa , 河) for the river; for example, Asakawa ;
• -co ( -ko , 湖) for a lake, for example, Biva-ko ;
• -oka ( -oka , 岡) for a hill, for example, Fukuoka ;
• -saki ( -saki , 崎) or -misaki ( -misaki , 岬) for the cape, for example, the city of Miyazaki ;
• -san or -zan ( -san or -zan , 山) or -yama for a mountain, for example, Yamanashi Prefecture , Aso-san ;
• -sawa or -zawa ( -sawa or -zawa , 沢) for a swamp, for example, Mizusawa;
• -shima or -jima ( -shima or -jima , 島) or -to ( -tō ) for an island, for example, Jojima , Okinawa-honto ;
• -tani or -tani ( -tani or -dani , 谷) for the valley;
• -van ( -wan , 湾) for a cape or bay; for example, Sagami-van .