Popular Christianity

In folk Christianity, an “unofficial” interpretation of rituals, sacred texts, and characters from biblical history was formed. Thus, it is a dynamic form of religion in which Christian dogma and elements of pre-Christian pagan beliefs coexist in syncretic unity , archetypal mythopoetic ideas and Christian canons are combined ^[5] .

According to the historian and ethnologist S. Shtyrkov , the border between "canonical" and "popular" Christianity is not clear and permanent, and is drawn by religious institutions (for example, the Russian Orthodox Church ), who often evaluate what goes beyond these limits as " superstition " or "paganism" ^[3] .

The term "dual faith" appeared in the Middle Ages . He is mentioned in sermons directed against Christians who in one way or another did not stop worshiping pagan deities. Since its inception, this word has meant conflict, conscious or unconscious, between two different religious systems. The term itself implies duality: conflicting with each other and separated by paganism and Christianity. This shade is not in the term " religious syncretism ", which, on the contrary, emphasizes the merger ^[6] .

The concept of "dual faith" originated in the church environment. Even in the period of early Christianity , “accusatory words” appear against non-canonical religious practices among Christians. For example, in the Eastern Roman Empire of the 4th century, Asterius of Asia (about 350 - about 410) in his sermons opposed the celebration of calends . Basil the Great (ca. 350 - ca. 410) denounced Christian contemporaries for the riotous commemoration on the graves, which assumed the character of pagan lupercalias . In the Western Roman Empire, the fathers and teachers of the Church in their sermons also denounced Christians for the presence of remnants of pagan customs in their lives.

In this context, the phenomenon of "dual faith" is inherent in all Christian cultures ( Catholic , Protestant , Orthodox ). In particular, the Catholic, and then the Protestant feast of the Day of All the Loyal Faithful , November 2 , and its eve - the popular Halloween festival in the English-speaking world - is an ancient Celtic pagan holiday ^[7] - the day of commemoration of the departed All Saints on November 1 ( fr. Toussaint ) is preserved in France) ^{[8] [9]} . By the beginning of Lent , carnivals traditional in many Christian cultures, which absorbed some of the pre-Christian traditions, etc., were confined to it. ^[10]

In Russia, this concept appears along with ecclesiastical teachings against paganism. For example, “ The word of a certain Christ-lover and adherent of the right faith ” of the XIV-XV centuries states the following:

... So this Christian could not tolerate Christians who are dubious living, believing in Perun , Hors , Mokosh and Simargl , in a willow , whom, as the ignorant say, distant sisters, consider them goddesses and offer them sacrifices and slaughter chickens, pray to the fire, calling them Svarozhich him, they deify garlic, and when someone has a feast, then they put him in buckets and bowls, and so they drink, having fun about their idols.

Original Text (Old Russian)

... Tako and this peasant, could not tolerate peasants, two-sidedly living, living in Perun and Hors and in Mokosh and in Sima and in Rgla and in Pitchforks ^[11] , their own number distant sister, they say no more than all the gods, they say nothing to hear the gods, the sister speaks far away and tacos lay demands on them and chickens cut them, fire to pray, call him Svaricets, and make garlic to God, always have a feast, then at the same time put buckets and cups and drink like that, having fun about their idols ^[12] .

Criticism of the concept of "dual faith"

NI Tolstoy , drawing attention to the primitivism of the “dual faith” scheme, proposed the term “tri-faith”. The third important component that constituted the worldview of the Russian Middle Ages was the popular, “non-canonical” culture of Byzantium , the Balkans and Europe, which came to Russia along with Christianity. In his opinion, Russian clownness , foolishness , elements of carol ritualism and the carnival cycle go back to it ^[10] .

American researcher Yves Levin believes that a significant proportion of popular ideas of the Russian Middle Ages has a purely Christian background, and not pagan, as previously thought. As an example, she cites one of the textbook arguments of the supporters of the “dual faith” concept: the cult of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa , which was considered a Christian “substitute” for the goddess Mokos . Meanwhile, the features, which, as it was believed, she borrowed from Mokosh, still go back to the life of St. Paraskeva and are traced in the veneration of this saint already in the Balkans, whence the tradition of her veneration came to Russia. In light of all this, the researcher proposes to use the term “popular religion,” rather than “dual faith” ^[13] .

A. B. Strakhov writes ^[14] :

From the XIX century, we were completely convinced that "it is worth removing from the pagan rituals imposed, with a thin layer, Christian paint, in order to reveal the features of ancient pagan beliefs."

Strakhov considers this scheme primitive and does not agree with it. In his monograph "Christmas Eve", he aims to prove that, on the contrary, "under the" pagan "appearance of the rite or belief often hides quite a Christian basis." To this end, he attracts a wide comparative material of popular Christianity from all over Europe.

A. A. Panchenko , criticizing the construction of archaic reconstructions divorced from reality, writes ^[15] :

... we do not have too many methods to determine the antiquity of certain phenomena of mass (especially - oral) culture. The “archaism” of many cultural forms studied by Russian ethnologists and folklorists is a scientific illusion. What was considered the "legacy of paganism" was often a relatively late phenomenon that arose in the context of Christian culture. <...> I think that the pursuit of archaic is another way of constructing the "alien" - this "obscure object of desire" of colonial anthropology.

Popular Catholicism is any manifestation of popular religion in Catholicism practiced in Catholic communities, and as a rule, in developing countries. The practices of “popular Catholicism” vary from place to place, and sometimes even contradict the official teaching and practice of the Catholic Church.

Some forms of popular Catholicism are based on non-Christian beliefs and may include a mix of images of Catholic saints and non-Christian deities. Some folk beliefs acquired Catholic forms, as in the case of the Caribbean and Brazilian syncretic religions, which unite Catholicism and religion in West Africa. Among such syncretistic religions, one can mention the , Cuban Santeria and the Brazilian Candomble . Similarly, there are complex intertwines between Catholic practice and the belief system of the indigenous peoples of America, such as those prevalent in Mayan communities in Guatemala and the Quechua Indian communities in Peru. At the same time, supporters of syncretic religions, as a rule, consider themselves good Catholics, even worshiping non-Christian gods.

Popular Orthodoxy among the Slavs

Formation

The spread of Christian doctrine in Russia, especially in the early stages, influenced the mythopoetic outlook of the people ^[16] . As a result, the “people's Orthodoxy” was formed, which became an organic part of Russian culture, preserving the tradition and embodying the system of the people's world outlook. In Russia, the primordial Slavic beliefs and rituals were woven into the fabric of popular Orthodoxy, in many respects different from the official religion ^[16] . N. B. Gordienko, following B. A. Rybakov, believed that in Russia "there was a long, centuries-old coexistence of Byzantine Christianity with Slavic paganism: first as independent religious systems functioning in parallel, and then - up to the present - as two components of a single Christian religious-church complex, called Russian Orthodoxy " ^[17] . According to N. S. Gordienko, “The“ Dual Faith ”, at first obvious, then hidden, was later overcome by Russian Orthodoxy, but this overcoming turned out to be largely formal, and its church reached at the cost of compromise through adaptability. Byzantine Christianity did not remove Slavic paganism from the consciousness and everyday life of the peoples of our country, but assimilated it by including pagan beliefs and rituals in its religious and cult complex ” ^[18] . At the same time, it is impossible not to note the influence of the non-canonical culture of the Balkans and Byzantium, which came to Russia together with Christianity ^[10] . The influence of the Finno-Ugrians and Scandinavians, as well as the Baltic and Iranian peoples neighboring Eastern Slavs should also be noted ^{[19] [20]} . This fact casts doubt on the adequacy of the term “dual faith” in relation to “non-canonical” beliefs. However, some authors relying on outdated research indicate even the “leading” role of Slavic paganism in “popular Orthodoxy” ^[21] . In itself, “popular Orthodoxy” is a dynamic form in which both archetypal mythopoetic ideas and Orthodox canons are combined ^[22] . Researchers note ^{[ who? ]} that in Russia, Orthodoxy is “not identical to a“ religious institution ”(from the Latin institution — device, instruction, instruction) —the official form of religious life established by the Church and supported by society (dogmatic teachings, canonical precepts, which are the result of special theological reflection) ” ^[23] . A similar situation occurred in other European countries. Historian V.Ya. Petrukhin notes: “Since both the teachings against the pagans and the Russian Early Chronicle - The Tale of Bygone Years (PVL) were the result of the“ reception ”of Byzantine designs - the works of the church fathers (first of all, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom) and Byzantine chronicles (first of all, John Malala and George Hamarthol), then the Old Russian folk motifs themselves, the names of pagan gods, etc., were included in the Byzantine and biblical “literary” context ^[24] . ”Another follower of the concept of“ dual belief " I. G. Froyanov noted more of the pagan nature of society, especially peasant in Russia until the XIV-XV centuries, relying primarily on the BA Rybakov hypothesis, as well as the nature of warfare, the prince’s tradition of drunken feasts and other indirect signs ^{[ 25]} . However, in birch bark there are only one or two references to Rusal , and even then as the dates of the agricultural calendar. Even accusations of “witchcraft”, which is not necessarily synonymous with “paganism”, are found in no more than two out of over 450 decoded documents. In contrast, the use of the Orthodox calendar to describe the agricultural cycle of works appears in the XIII century and indicates the spread of Christianity at this time. By the end of the 14th century, peasants usually call themselves “Christians,” which emphasizes their assimilation of Christian identity. City dwellers identify themselves as Christians no later than the 12th century ^[26] .

Popular Orthodoxy is a socio-cultural phenomenon. It developed gradually with the spread of Christianity in Russia. At first, “the masses of the people should at least minimally master the ritual and dogmatic foundations of the new religion” ^[27] .

Folk ideas about God and His trinity in general coincided with Christian doctrine: God is the Creator, Provider and Judge of the world; God is one and in three persons. But the more specific question about the essence of the trinity of God put the peasant at a dead end ^[27] . So the idea of ​​the trinity of God, in essence, was reduced to the belief that there are three separate persons of the Trinity . With the name of God the Father, the peasants were more connected with the idea of ​​the fatherly attitude of God to people, and not the personal property of the first person of the Trinity. God the Son was conceived as the Lord Jesus Christ , and not as the second person of the Trinity eternally born from the Father. The idea of ​​the Holy Spirit was particularly vague and uncertain ^[27] . It is not by chance that the result of studies of popular ideas about God, which were undertaken by the church author Alexei Popov, concluded that “the people's view of the divinity of Divine people is not complete, sometimes it seems somewhat hesitant and confused, but nonetheless the people distinguish Divine faces: Father , Son and Holy Ghost. The Russian people recognize a single God, although at the same time, without giving themselves an account in their submission (...) they recognize three persons of the Holy Trinity ” ^[28] . And in the XIX century, the basic dogma of Christianity about the trinity of God was not mastered by the Russian peasants. In explaining this fact, church authors referred to the insufficiency of Christian enlightenment of the peasants ^[27] .

Theological and dogmatic category of the Trinity was rethought at the household level. In the research literature, this phenomenon is associated with the coincidence of the holy feast of the Holy Trinity and the cycle of the ancient Slavic Semitch festivities . The associative-integrated character of medieval thinking and the whole popular culture was manifested in the perception of the Trinity as the Virgin Mary ^[29] . In the oral poetic work, the Trinity was perceived as the Mother of God, which was reflected, in particular, in some Semsk songs with the well-known beginning of “Bless, The Trinity-Mother of God ...” performed in the second half of the XIX century. This image of the Trinity of the Virgin found expression in icon painting ^[30] . This is an example of domestic popular myth-making, which adopted Christian dogma through the prism of pagan concepts. A. N. Veselovsky wrote: “Thus, a whole new world of fantastic images was to be created, in which Christianity was involved only with materials, names, and the content and the building itself were pagan” ^[30] .

Some researchers explain the peculiar interweaving of superstition with Christian doctrine by the fact that the peasants in Christianity were attracted not by the dogmatic side (many peasants did not understand the Christian dogmas), but by the purely external, ritual ^[31] . According to Archbishop Macarius (Bulgakov) , author of the multi-volume “History of the Russian Church,” many of the Christians practically remained pagans: they performed the rites of the Holy Church, but they retained the customs and beliefs of their fathers ^[32] .

In the USSR, the question of domestic Orthodoxy as a functioning system, socio-cultural and socio-historical phenomenon remained insufficiently studied ^[33] .

Popular religiosity differed from official Christianity and even opposed it. At the same time, the church accepted some popular worship and worship, making adjustments to its teaching. For example, the folk cult of the Virgin Mary by the XII century was supported and developed by the church. Under the influence of the popular veneration of “holy poverty” and the notions of social justice by the 12th century, the emphasis of veneration shifts from the cult of the fearsome God the Father, and Christ the Pantocrator , as rulers of the world, to the cult of Christ the Redeemer ^[34] .

Domestic Orthodoxy is a peculiar, created by the peasantry , “editorship” of the Christian religion, condemned by the Church. The Christian religion, in the form in which it was affirmed by the clergy , could not penetrate the very depths of the life of the Russian village, and taking the form of agrarian and everyday beliefs, was the source and soil for the emergence of superstitious ideas, magical actions, and original interpretations of the real world ^[35] .

As early as the 19th century, it was noted that Christian holidays in the folk environment are marked by “magic tricks” - rituals “rough” and “dirty”, causing the most serious condemnation of the church ^[36] . And at the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian people were told:

The Russian people do not understand anything in their religion ... it mixes God with Saint Nicholas and the latter is even ready to give an advantage ... Christianity dogmas are completely unknown to him

- Missionary Review, 1902, Vol II

According to some researchers, popular religious beliefs should be understood not as a “dual faith”, “layering and parallel existence of the old and the new,” not as a haphazard formation consisting of the pagan cultural layer itself and the late church strata, but as a “people's common faith”, integral a world view that does not break down into paganism and Christianity, but forms a coherent, albeit mobile, and in some cases somewhat controversial system ^[37] .

Slavs' views of saints

With the spread of Christianity in Russia, the former beliefs of the Slavs did not disappear without a trace ^[38] . The mutual influence of pagan and Christian cultures led to the transformation of the images of Christian saints in folk culture. They turned out to be “substitutes” for the pagan gods, and some pre-Christian features were adopted ^{[39] [40]} .

Folk ideas of the Slavs about the Christian saints and their lives are sometimes very different from their canonical images. In fairy tales and legends, some of them sometimes organically perform the function of good helpers, while others even play the role of pests for the peasant. This has especially affected the images of the Virgin , Nicholas the Wonderworker , Elijah the Prophet , George the Victorious , Blasius , Flora and Laurus , Kasian , Paraskeva Pyatnitsa , Kuzma and Demyan ^[39] .

Mother of God

Slavs Mother of God was perceived as the patroness of women, women's work, women in labor, a defender from misery, evil spirits, adversity and suffering, heavenly intercessor, sympathetic, merciful and sympathetic. Therefore, it is often addressed in folk prayers , conspiracies , spells . The Virgin Mary is a favorite character of folk legends, often with a book apocryphal source ^[41] .

The patronage of women in labor is due to the traditional perception of the maternal beginning in the image of the Virgin Mary, which is also emphasized by the etymological connection of her naming with the word “childbirth”. The Mother of God was usually asked for help in difficult childbirth, on the day of Christmas the Mother of God pregnant prayed for an easy resolution of the burden. The Virgin Mary was also perceived not only as the Mother of God, but also as a mother for all people. In this sense, in the peasant consciousness, it correlated with the Mother-raw earth. This connection is also found in the traditional ideas about obscenity: in the folk environment it was believed that she insulted the three mothers of man - the Mother of God, the Mother Cheese the earth and her own mother. The Russians know the saying: when they use foul language, “The Mother of God falls face down in the mud” ^[42] .

The union of the cults of the Virgin and the Mother of the damp earth was recorded in the 1920s in Pereslavl-Zalessky district of the Vladimir province. Here, during a severe drought, the men in desperation began beating dry clods of land on arable land with beaters, to which the women demanded to stop, saying that by doing so they beat “Mother the Most Holy Theotokos”. The affinity of the Russian rites related to the ritual beginning of sowing on the Annunciation in some places testifies to the connection of the Virgin with agriculture. In order to have a good harvest, on this day the grain was sown for sowing, and then the icon of the Virgin was placed in a vessel with grain, and a sentence was pronounced ^[43] :

Mother of God!
Gabriel the Archangel!
Preach, favor,
Bless us with the harvest.
Oats and rye, barley, wheat
And everybody lives a hundredfold!

Nicola the Wonderworker

Nikola the Wonderworker is one of the most revered Christian saints among the Slavs. In the Eastern Slavic tradition, the cult of Nikola is closer in importance to the veneration of God himself (Christ) ^[44] .

According to the folk beliefs of the Slavs, Nikola is the “eldest” among the saints, enters the holy Trinity (sic) and can even change on the throne of God ^[44] . The legend from the Belarusian Polesie says that “Mykola's saints are not only older than the holy ones, but mabyts and elders over them <...> Mykola's saints are heirloom, yak God pamre (sic), then syv. Mikalay the wonder-worker Budze Bagavats, but not hto insha. The plots of folk legends about how St. Nicholas became the “sovereign”: he prayed so fervently in the church that the golden crown itself fell on his head (in Ukrainian Carpathians) ^[45] .

In Eastern and Western Slavs, the image of Nikola according to some of their functions (the “head” of paradise owns the keys to the sky; transports souls to the “other world”; patronizes the warriors) can be contaminated with the image of the Archangel Michael . Among the southern Slavs, the image of the saint as a fighter of snakes and a "wolf shepherd" approaches the image of George the Victorious ^[46] .

The main functions of Nikola (patron of livestock and wild animals, farming, beekeeping, communication with the afterlife, correlation with relics of the bear cult), the opposition of the “gracious” Nikola to the “formidable” Ilya the prophet in folklore legends show, according to B. A. Ouspensky , about the preservation in the national veneration of St. Nicholas traces of the cult of the pagan deity Veles ^[46] .

Elijah the prophet

In the Slavic folk tradition, Elijah the prophet is the lord of thunder, heavenly fire, rain, the patron of the harvest and fertility. Ilya is a “ terrible saint” ^[47] .

According to Slavic folk legends, based on the book ( biblical , Bogomil ) tradition, Ilya was taken alive to heaven. Up to 33 years, Ilya sat in bed and was healed and endowed with tremendous power by the God and st. Nikolai (cf. Bogatyr ), after which he was ascended to heaven (eagles.), Cf. epic story about Ilya of Murom . The saint travels across the sky in a fiery (stone) chariot. According to Slavic beliefs, the sun is a wheel from the chariot of Elijah the prophet, drawn by fiery (white, winged) horses (glory), or on a white horse (bolg.), Which causes thunder. The Milky Way is the road on which the prophet goes. In winter, Ilya rides a sleigh, so thunderstorms and thunder do not happen (eagles.). The power of the Thunder Elijah is so great that it has to be restrained: God laid a stone of 40 acres (eagles) on Elijah’s head, bound him with one arm and a leg (Carpathians); Elijah's sister Maria of Fire hides the day of his holiday from him, otherwise he will beat the whole world with lightning (Serb); at St. Ilya is only the left hand; if he had both hands, he would have killed all the devils on earth (the Banat heras). Before the end of the world, Elijah will go down to the ground and travel around the world three times, warning of the Last Judgment (eagles); will come to the earth to die or be martyred by cutting off the head on the skin of a huge ox that grazes on seven mountains and drinks seven rivers of water; the blood of the prophet shed at the same time will burn the earth (Carpathians). According to the legend from Galicia, the end of the world will come when Illya "is so sunken by thunder, just the earth of Rosipitsi i is burning"; Wed Russian spiritual verse "On the Last Judgment," in which the saint acts as the executor of the will of the Lord, punishing the sinful human race ^[47] .

Yegoriy the Brave

In the folk culture of the Slavs, George the Victorious is called Yegory the Brave ^[48] , Yuri is a cattle protector, a "wolf shepherd", "unlocks the Earth in spring, and releases dew." In southern Slavs, Gergiev (Yuriev) day is the main calendar milestone of the first half of the year, together with Dmitriyev’s day he divides the year into two half-years - “Dmitrovskoe” and “Yurievskoe” ^[49] . According to T. Zueva, the image of Yegory the Brave in the folk tradition merged with the pagan Dazhbog ^[50] .

Two images of the saint coexist in the popular consciousness: one of them is close to the church cult of St. Georgy is a snake picker and a Christ-loving warrior, another, very different from the first, to the cult of a cattle farmer and farmer, owner of the land, patron of cattle, opening the spring field work. Thus, in folk legends and spiritual poems, the exploits of the holy warrior Yegoria (Georgy), who had resisted the torture and promises of the “king of Demyanische (Diocletian)” and had struck “the lyutus serpent, lyutu fire,” are sung. The motive of victory of sv. George is known in the oral poetry of the Eastern and Western Slavs. Poles of sv. Jerzy fights with the "Wawel Smokey" (a serpent from the Krakow castle). The Russian spiritual verse, also following the iconographic canon, also counts Theodore Tyrone as serpent bearers (see The Tale of the Feeds of Fyodor Tyrinin ), whom the Eastern and South Slavonic traditions also represent the horseman and protector of livestock ^[51] .

Another popular image of the saint is associated with the beginning of spring, agriculture and cattle breeding, with the first pasture of cattle, which in Eastern and parts of southern Slavs, as well as in eastern Poland, is often on St. George’s Day. In Russian (fire, tver.) Bypass Yuriev songs refer to St. Yegoria and sv. Macarius ^[51] :

Yegori you are our brave
Macarius Reverend!
You save our cattle
In the field and beyond the field
In the forest and beyond the forest,
Under the bright month
Under the red sun
From a predatory wolf,
From the bitter bear,
From the beast of the evil one

In Croats and Slovenes bypassing the courtyards with Yuriev songs, the main figure - “ Green Yuri ” ( Zeleni Juraj ) - a boy, covered from head to toe with green branches, depicting St. George (cf. woods. Bush ). In the same Croatian songs in St. George's Day, there is sometimes a motive of snake fights and the abduction of a maiden by a snake. The Slovenes in Pomurje led Green Yuri or Vesnik ( Zeleni Jurij, Vésnik - from the Slovenian dialectal vésna “spring”) and sang ^[48] :

Original Zelenega jurja vodimo, Maslo in jajca prosimo, Ježi-babo zganjamo, Mladoletje trosimo!

Transfer Green Yuri we drive, Butter and eggs ask, Babu Yaga chases away, Spring scatter!

The Bulgarian and East Serbian Yuryev songs are characterized by the motive of shoeing a horse and driving around the fields: “Sveti Giorgi horse is from silver and gold ...” (St. George shoots a horse with silver and gold ...) ^[48]

Original Tr'gnal mi sveti Georgi Sutrom early on Gergovden Yes hurt greenery nivya, Zeleny nivya, staying livadi.

Transfer Headed saint george Early morning on Yuriev day Circling green fields Green fields, dewy meadows.

In Priangarya, Yegoria the Brave was honored as the patron of horses; on his day they did not work on horses. In Pirin Macedonia ( Petrich ) believed that of sv. Georgy is the lord of spring rain and thunder: along with the prophet Elijah he rode on a horse across the sky, and from this thunder was heard. In the villages near Plovdiv, they perceived the saint as the master and “holder” of all the waters: he killed the serpent in order to give people water ^[51] .

Blasius - bastard god

In the Slavic folk tradition, St. Blasius is the patron saint of livestock ^[52] , “the milk that is opened from cows” at the end of winter ^[53] . Traditional ideas about St. Blasius date back to the image of the Slavic cattle god Volos. The combination of the images of a pagan deity and a Christian saint in the popular consciousness was probably facilitated by the sound proximity of their names. In Russia, with the adoption of Christianity in the places of pagan worship of Volos, churches of St. Blasius were often erected ^[54] .

According to the life, during the persecutions of Christians under the Roman emperor Licinius , St. Blasius hid in the desert places and lived on Mount Argeos in a cave to which wild beasts meekly approached, in everything obeying Blasius and receiving from him blessings and healing from diseases. The motive of patronage of cattle is reflected in the iconography of St. Blasius. He was sometimes depicted on a white horse, surrounded by horses, cows and sheep, or just cattle. In the Slavic folk tradition, St. Blasius was called the “cow god”, and the day of his memory the “cow holiday” ^[52] . In Novgorod, in Vlasyev, cow butter was brought to his image. On Belarusians on the day of St. Blasius ("horse holy"), young horses went round and arranged a special meal. According to North Ukrainian notions, Blasius is “envious of horned cattle.” In Siberia, the feast of St. Blasius was celebrated as the patron of livestock. In eastern Serbia (Budjak), Vlasyev Day was considered to be a celebration of oxen and cattle ( Serbian gova glory ), on that day no oxen were harnessed ^[52] .

If the day of Vlasyev coincided with the Pancake Day , then they said about this day: “On Akolyas, boles of porridge of butter” ^[55] (Belarusian) - Take butter with a ladle on Vlas. “The bastard god - the horn knocks down from the winter” ^[56] , and on Onesimus sheepdog on February 15 (28) , “winter becomes hornless” ^[57] .

Paraskeva Friday

in the folk Orthodox tradition of the Slavs, the mythologized image of the saint is based on the personification of Friday as the day of the week and the cult of the generalized image of St. Paraskeva ^[58] . According to a number of researchers, some signs and functions of the main female deity of the Eastern Slavic pantheon - Mokosh were transferred to Paraskeva Friday: connection with women's work (spinning, sewing, etc.), with marriage and childbirth, with earthly moisture ^[58] . It also relates to the Virgin Mary , the Week (Sunday) and St. Anastasia ^[58] .

The image of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, according to popular ideas, differs markedly from the iconographic one, where she is portrayed of an ascetic appearance as a woman in a red homophore . Popular imagination endowed her with demonic features: tall, long flowing hair, large breasts, which she throws behind her back, and others, which brings her closer to female mythological characters such as Share , Death , mermaids . Существовал обряд «вождения Пятницы» зафиксированный в XVIII веке: «в Малой России, в полку Стародубском, в день уроченный праздничный водят жонку простовласую под именем Пятницы, а водят в ходе церковном и при церкви честь оной отдает народ с дары и со упованием некоей пользы» ^[59] . В былинках Параскева Пятница прядёт оставленную хозяйкой недопряденную кудель (подобно домовому , кикиморе , маре ) ^[60] , наказывает женщину, осмелившуюся вопреки запрету заниматься прядением, мотанием ниток, шитьём: путает нитки, может содрать кожу с нарушительницы, отнять зрение, превратить в лягушку, бросить в окно сорок веретён с приказанием напрясть их до утра и т. п.) ^[61]

Согласно поверьям, Параскева Пятница контролирует соблюдение и других пятничных запретов (стирка белья, отбеливание холстов, расчёсывание волос и пр.) ^[62] .

По украинским поверьям, Пятница ходит исколотая иглами и веретенами нерадивых хозяек, не почтивших святую и её дни. До XIX века на Украине сохранялся обычай «водить Пятницу» — женщину с распущенными волосами ^[63] .

В быличках и духовных стихах Параскева Пятница жалуется, что её не почитают, не соблюдая запретов по пятницам, — колют её веретенами, прядут её волосы, засоряют ей глаза кострой . По поверьям, на иконах Параскева Пятница изображена с торчащими из груди спицами или веретенами (ср. образы Богоматери Семистрельной или Умягчение злых сердец ) ^[64] .

A week

В народных представлениях славян персонаж, персонификация дня недели — воскресенья . Соотносится со святой Анастасией (у болгар — и со св. Кириакией ^[65] ). С почитанием Недели связаны запреты на различные виды работ (ср. происхождение славянского неделя от не делать ).

Белорусы Гродненской губернии рассказывали, что день отдыха — нядзеля — был дан людям после того, как однажды человек спрятал св. Неделю от преследовавших её собак; до этого были одни будни. Украинцы Волыни говорили, что Бог подарил Неделе целый день, но велел ей самой следить, чтобы люди в этот день не работали. По представлениям хорватов, у святой Недели нет рук, поэтому работать в этот день особенно грешно.

Св. Неделя приходит к тем, кто нарушает запрета на работу в воскресенье (прядёт, ткёт, треплет лён, копает землю, ходит в лес, работает в поле и т. д.). Неделя появляется в виде женщины (девушки) в белой, золотой или серебряной одежде (бел.), с израненным телом и жалуется, что её колют веретенами, прядут её волосы (при этом указывает на свою изорванную косу — укр.), рубят, режут и т. п. В украинской легенде мужик встречает на дороге молодую женщину, которая признаётся, что она — Неделя, которую люди «спекли, сварили, поджарили, ошпарили, посекли, съели» ( Чигиринский уезд ). В западно-белорусской легенде Неделя является в паре с нарядной и красивой жидовской недзелькой (то есть субботой, почитаемой евреями) и жалуется, что евреи свою «неделю» почитают, а «вы всё робите в неделю, то мне чисто тело паабрывали».

Почитание Недели тесно связано с почитанием других персонифицированных дней недели — среды и пятницы, которые в народных верованиях связаны родственными узами. Сербы считают, что Параскева Пятница — мать или сестра святой Недели (ср. следующие друг за другом дни св. Параскевы Пятницы — 28.Х/10.XI и св. Анастасии — 29.X/11.XI). По представлениям гуцулов, «неділя — то Матка Божа» (Богородица обращалась за покровительством ко всем дням седмицы, согласилась неделя, то есть воскресенье; ср. общеславянское представления о Богородице, св. Параскеве Пятнице, св. Анастасии как покровительницах женщин и женских работ и сходные запреты, приуроченные к богородичным праздникам, пятнице и воскресенью) ^[66] .

Апостолы Пётр и Павел

В славянской традиции Пётр и Павел являются парными персонажами (ср. Кузьма и Демьян , Флор и Лавр ), которые часто могут выступать в едином образе: Пётр-Павел, Петро-Павло, Петропавля . Болгары считали их братьями, иногда даже близнецами, у которых была сестра — святая Елена или святая Мария ( Огненная ). Пётр — младший брат и более добрый: он позволяет земледельцам работать в свой праздник. Павел — старший, он грозен и сурово наказывает нарушителей праздничных обычаев, посылая с неба гром и молнии, сжигающие снопы. По сербскому преданию, «разделение вер на православную и католическую произошло после ссоры апостолов: Пётр объявил себя православным (сербом), а Павел сказал, что он католик ( шокац )». В представлении славян Пётр и Павел занимают особое место, выступая в роли хранителей ключей от рая (ср. белорусское название созвездия Лебедя — Пятрова палка , которое воспринимается также как ключ от рая). Болгары также считали святого Петра сторожем райского сада, охраняющим золотое райское дерево, вокруг которого в виде мух и пчёл летают души умерших детей ^[67] .

В традиционном мировоззрении русского народа апостол Петр относился к числу наиболее чтимых святых угодников. В сказаниях и быличках он фигурирует под именем апостола-ключаря ^[68] .

Среди гуцулов существовало поверье, что ключи от земли святой Пётр хранит весь год и лишь весной их забирает у него святой Юрий ; в Петров день ключи вновь возвращаются к Петру, и тогда наступает осень ^[69] .

В Сербии представляли апостола Петра «разъезжающим на златорогом олене по небесному полю над колосящимися земными нивами» ^[70] .

Проявление в иконах и обрядах

Советский искусствовед М. В. Алпатов полагал, что среди древнерусских икон можно выделить те, в которых отражены народные идеалы ^{[ what? ]} и что особенно ярко народное представление о святых проявляется на иконах с изображением покровителей скота (Георгия, Власия, Флора и Лавра), а также на иконах Ильи Пророка, своего рода «преемника» бога грома и молнии Перуна . Кроме того, он допускал, что некоторые ^{[ what? ]} древнерусские иконы отразили народное двоеверие, в том числе культ Матери Сырой Земли ^[71]

По мнению доктора исторических наук Л. Емелях , этот существовавший когда-то у славян культ матери-земли, покровительницы урожая, отражает икона Спорительница хлебов ^{[72] [ значимость факта? ]} , написанная в конце XIX века.

Н. И. Толстой рассматривает обряды оползания и опоясывания храма, обряды вызывания дождя ^[73] , обряды, связанные с защитой от громом и града ^[74] , а также некоторые другие, как симбиоз христианских и дохристианских обычаев.

К числу народно-христианских молитв принадлежат канонические молитвы, бытующие в народной культуре, фрагменты церковной службы , наделяемые в народной среде апотропеической функцией (то есть имеющие неканоническое применение), и собственно неканонические молитвы. Функционирование и закрепление народных молитв в традиции в качестве апотропеев (ритуалов-оберегов) в значительной мере определяется не их собственной семантикой, а высоким сакральным статусом. Сами по себе эти тексты не обладают апотропеической семантикой, и использование их как оберегов определяется их способностью, как считается, предотвращать потенциальную опасность. Основная часть корпуса таких текстов книжного происхождения и проникла в народную традицию с принятием христианства , меньшая часть — аутентичные тексты.

В отличие от требников (содержащих, в частности, канонические молитвы), где за каждой молитвой закреплено строго определенное употребление, в народной культуре канонические христианские молитвы обычно не имеют такой закреплённости, а используются как универсальные апотропеи на все случаи жизни. Основная причина этого в том, что круг канонических молитв, известных в традиционной культуре, чрезвычайно узок. Сюда относятся такие распространённые молитвы, содержащие апотропеическую семантику, как «Да воскреснет Бог, и расточа́тся врази́ Его…» (в восточнославянской народной традиции обычно именуется «Воскресной молитвой») и 90-й псалом «Живый в помощи…» (обычно по народной этимологии переделывается в «Живые помощи»), а также « Отче наш » и «Богородице Дево, радуйся…» (в католической традиции — «Zdrowiaś, Maria…»). Молитва «Отче наш» в народной среде выступает как универсальный апотропей, что объясняется её исключительным статусом — это единственная «нетварная» молитва, то есть данная людям самим Богом, Христом. В то же время, эта молитва является декларацией принадлежности человека к христианскому миру и пребывания его под защитой небесных сил.

В качестве оберегов функционируют и фрагменты церковной службы, никак по смыслу не связанные с апотропеической ситуацией, в которой они используются. Например, начало из Литургии Василия Великого «О тебе радуется, Благодатная, всякая тварь, Ангельский собор и человеческий род…» может читаться хозяином во время выгона коровы на пастбище ^[75] .

Апокрифические молитвы (в индексе отреченных книг — «ложные молитвы») представляют собой молитвы, составленные по образцу церковных, но содержащие большое число вставок из народных поверий, заговоров, заклинаний, в ряде случаев переделки или отрывки из апокрифов ^[76] . Апокрифические молитвы и жития, адаптированные для «защитных» целей, намного более распространены в народной традиции, чем канонические церковные тексты. Апокрифические молитвы являются в основном текстами книжного происхождения. Одни их варианты могут сохранять жанровую форму молитвы, другие — приобретают черты заговоров. Часто переписывались и использовались в качестве талисманов и амулетов , которые носились вместе с нательным крестом или хранились в доме ^[75] .

Чаще всего встречаются молитвы-заговоры от лихорадки . В тексте обычно упоминаются святой Сисиний и иродовы дочки — лихорадки ^[76] . Исключительной по распространённости является апокрифическая молитва «Сон Богородицы», содержащая рассказ Богоматери о крестных муках Христа. Текст известен как в католической, так и в православной традициях в многочисленных вариантах. В народной среде восточных славян эта молитва занимает доминирующее место и почитается наравне с «Отче наш» и 90-м псалмом. Чаще всего она произносилась перед сном в качестве общеапотропеического текста. Текст «Сна Богородицы» в качестве талисмана носился в ладанке вместе с нательным крестом. В числе текстов книжного происхождения как у православных, так и у католиков, значительную долю составляют апокрифические молитвы, содержащие рассказ о жизни и распятии Христа или о других значимых событиях Священной истории . Рассказ о крестных муках Христа ради спасения человечества проецирует идею всеобщего спасения на конкретную ситуацию, поэтому считается, что в некоторых случаях для спасения от опасности достаточно упоминания о событиях из жизни Христа ^[75] .

• Христианская интерпретация
• Христианская мифология
• Абхазская религия
• Русский месяцеслов
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