Zheng He ( Chinese trad. 鄭 和 , ex. 郑 和 , pinyin : Zhèng Hé ; 1371 - 1435 ) is a Chinese eunuch , traveler, naval commander and diplomat who led seven large-scale naval military trade expeditions sent by the emperors of the Minsk dynasty to the countries of Indochina , Hindustan , Arabian Peninsula and East Africa .
| Zheng he | |
|---|---|
| whale. Trade 鄭 和 , exercise 郑 和 | |
 | |
| Birth name | Ma He (馬 和) |
| Date of Birth | or |
| Place of Birth | Yunnan |
| Date of death | or |
| Place of death | |
| A country | |
| Occupation | traveler, fleet admiral |
| Father | Ma Haiji |
| Mother | Van |
Although private Chinese merchant ships cruised between South China and Southeast Asia almost unceasingly since the Song Dynasty , military-diplomatic expeditions to Southeast Asia and even Sri Lanka were carried out during the Mongol Yuan dynasty , as the scale of Zheng He’s expeditions and the high importance attached to them by Emperor Zhu Di was unprecedented. These expeditions, at least formally and for a short period of time (several decades), made the numerous kingdoms of the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and South India vassals of the Minsk Empire and brought to China new information about the peoples of the Indian Ocean . It is believed that the influence of the expeditions of the Chinese fleet turned out to be more lasting on the historical development of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java, since they could be among the factors that gave a new impetus to the emigration of the Chinese to this region and the strengthening of the role of Chinese culture there.
Even during the time of the main patron of Zheng He, Emperor Zhu Di, the expeditions of Zheng He were severely criticized by many representatives of the Confucian elite of China, who considered them unnecessary and expensive imperial undertakings. After the death of Zheng He and emperor Zhu Zhanji (grandson of Zhu Di), these isolationist views prevailed at all levels in the government of Minsk China. As a result, state maritime expeditions were discontinued, and most of the technical information about Zheng He's fleet was destroyed or lost. The official " History of Mines ", compiled in the 17th-18th centuries, spoke of his voyages in a critical manner, but for many people in China, and especially in the Chinese communities formed in Southeast Asia, the eunuch naval commander remained a national hero.
At the beginning of the 20th century, during the rise of the movement for the liberation of China from foreign dependence, the image of Zheng He gained new popularity [7] . In modern China, Zheng He is regarded as one of the prominent personalities in the history of the country, and his voyages (usually regarded as an example of China’s peaceful policy towards its neighbors) are opposed to the aggressive expeditions of European colonialists of the 16th – 19th centuries [8] .
Biography
Origin
At birth, the future navigator received the name Ma He (馬 和). He was born in the village of Hedai [9] , Kunyang County [10] [11] [approx. 1] . Kunyang County was located in central Yunnan , on the southern shore of Dianchi Lake, near the northern end of which is the provincial capital Kunming .
Ma's family came from the so-called Samu - immigrants from Central Asia who arrived in China during the Mongol rule and held various positions in the state apparatus of the Yuan Empire . Most of the samu , including Zheng He's ancestors, were of Muslim faith [10] (it is often believed that the surname “Ma” itself is nothing but a Chinese pronunciation of the name “Muhammad”). After the fall of the Yuan dynasty and the ascension to the throne of the Ming dynasty, their descendants assimilated into the Chinese environment, mainly in the ranks of Chinese-speaking Muslims - huizu [12] .
Not much is known about Ma Hae's parents; almost everything that we know about them dates back to the stele established in their honor in their homeland in 1405 at the direction of the admiral. The father of the future navigator was known as Ma Haji (1345–1381 or 1382 [10] [note 2] ), in honor of his pilgrimage to Mecca ; his wife bore the last name Wen (温). The family had six children: four daughters and two sons - the eldest, Ma Wenming, and the youngest, Ma He [10] .
It is not known for certain how the ancestors of Zheng He came to China. According to family tradition, the father of Ma Khadzhi (that is, the grandfather of the future admiral), also known as Ma Khadzhi, was the grandson of Saeed Ajal al-Din Omar , a native of Bukhara (in modern Uzbekistan ), one of the commanders of Khubilai Khan, who managed to conquer Yunnan Province and become its ruler [10] . There is no complete certainty in this, but it is likely that the ancestors of Ma really came to Yunnan along with the Mongols [13] .
Zheng He, like his ancestors, professed Islam and, according to some assumptions, advocated intercession for his brothers in faith, despite the fact that at the beginning of the reign of the Minsk dynasty, Muslims were suspicious. The reason was that during the Yuan dynasty, many of the Samu held the posts of tax collectors [14] [15] . However, Zheng He, with all his adherence to Islam , respected other religions, such as Buddhism (even had the Buddhist nickname Three Jewels - Sanbao ) and Taoism , which are one of the main ones in China, and, if necessary, readily participated in the relevant rituals. It is also believed that his commitment to Islam played a significant role in deciding to appoint him the admiral of the Golden Fleet, who, among other things, was to visit Arabia and Africa, places in which Islam was one of the dominant religions.
Joining Zhu Di and Military Career
After the overthrow of the Mongol yoke in central and northern China and the establishment of the Ming Dynasty by Zhu Yuanzhang there (1368), the mountain province of Yunnan on the southwestern outskirts of China remained under Mongol control for several more years. It is not known whether Ma Haji fought on the side of the Yuan loyalists during the conquest of Yunnan by the Minsk forces, but be that as it may, he died during this campaign (1382), and his youngest son Ma He was taken prisoner and fell into the service of Zhu Di , the son of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang , who led the Yunnan campaign [10] [16] .
Three years later, in 1385, the boy was neutered [approx. 3] , and he became one of the many eunuchs at the court of Zhu Di, who bore the title of Grand Duke Yan ( Yan Wang) and was based in Beiping (future Beijing ). The young eunuch received the name Ma Sanbao (馬 三寶 / 马 三宝) that is, Ma “Three Treasures” or “Three Jewels”. According to Needham , despite the eunuch’s undoubtedly Muslim origin, this title served as a reminder of the “ three jewels ” of Buddhism ( Buddha , dharma and sangha ), whose names are so often repeated by Buddhists [17] .
It is believed that, being at the court of the Grand Duke, Ma Sanbao could get a better education than he could have achieved if instead of Beiping he got to Nanjing , to the court of Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang himself, who had a strong distrust of eunuchs and sought, if not to forbid to teach them to read and write, then at least to limit the number of literate eunuchs [10] .
Like the Grand Duke of Yansky, Zhu Di had at his disposal significant military forces and fought against the Mongols on the northern border of the empire. Ma Sanbao participated in his winter campaign of 1386/87. against one of the Mongol leaders, Naghachu [18] .
The first Minsk emperor Zhu Yuanzhang planned to transfer the throne to his firstborn son Zhu Biao , but he died while Zhu Yuanzhang was still alive. As a result, the first emperor appointed Zhu Biao's son, Zhu Yunwen , as his heir, although his uncle Zhu Di (one of Zhu Yuanzhang's youngest sons) probably considered himself more worthy of the throne. Having ascended the throne in 1398 (the motto of the Jianwen reign ), Zhu Yunwen, fearing the seizure of power by one of his uncles, began to destroy them one by one. Soon, a civil war broke out between the young emperor in Nanjing and his Peking uncle Zhu Di. Due to the fact that Zhu Yunwen forbade eunuchs to take part in governing the country, many of them supported Zhu Di during the uprising. In return for his service, Zhu Di, for his part, allowed them to participate in resolving political issues, and allowed them to rise to the highest levels of their political careers, which was also very beneficial for Ma Sanbao. The young eunuch distinguished himself during the defense of Beiping in 1399, and during the capture of Nanjing in 1402 and was one of the commanders who were entrusted with the task of capturing the capital of the empire - Nanjing. Destroying the regime of his nephew, Zhu Di on July 17, 1402 ascended the throne under the motto of Yongle's reign [19] .
In the (Chinese) New Year 1404 [20], the new emperor granted Ma He the new surname Zheng as a reward for his faithful service. This served as a reminder of the fact that in the early days of the uprising, Ma Hae's horse was killed in the vicinity of Beiping in a place called Zhenlongba [19] .
According to some sources, in 1404, Zheng He led the construction of a fleet to fight the so-called " Japanese pirates " and, perhaps, even visited Japan to negotiate with the local authorities about a joint fight against pirates [20] .
Seven voyages Zheng He
After Zheng He for all his services to the emperor was given the title of “chief eunuch” ( taijian ), which corresponded to the fourth rank of official [approx. 4] , the emperor Zhu Di decided that he was better than the others for the role of fleet admiral and appointed a eunuch as the leader of all or almost all seven voyages to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean in 1405-1433, simultaneously raising his status to the third rank [21 ] . The fleet apparently consisted of about 250 ships, and carried about 27 thousand personnel on board, led by 70 imperial eunuchs [22] . The largest vessels of this fleet could be - according to the official " History of Mines " - the largest wooden sailing vessels ever existing.
A flotilla led by Zheng He visited over 56 countries and large cities in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean basin . Chinese ships reached the shores of Arabia and East Africa . The first voyage of Zheng He took place in 1405-1407 along the route Suzhou - the banks of Tampa - Java Island - Northwest Sumatra - Strait of Malacca - Sri Lanka Island. Then, rounding the southern tip of Hindustan , the flotilla moved to the trading cities of the Malabar coast of India, reaching the largest Indian port - Calicut ( Kozhikode ). The routes of the second (1407–1409) and third (1409–1411) campaigns were approximately the same. The fourth (1413-1415), fifth (1417-1419), sixth (1421-1422) and seventh (1431-1433) expeditions reached Hormuz and the African coast in the area of modern Somalia , entered the Red Sea . Mariners kept detailed and accurate records of what they saw, made maps. They recorded the time of departure, places of parking, marked the location of reefs and shallows. Descriptions of overseas states and cities, political orders, climate, local customs, legends were compiled. Zheng He delivered emperor messages to foreign countries, encouraged the arrival of foreign embassies in China, and conducted trade.
To achieve his goals, he also resorted to armed force [23] . So, for example, in 1405, during the first expedition, Zheng He demanded the transfer of the sacred Buddhist relics of Lanka — the tooth, hair, and alms bowl to the Chinese emperor — to the Chinese emperor, which were the most important relics and attributes of the power of Sinhala kings. Having been refused, Zheng He returned to the island again in 1411, accompanied by a detachment of 3,000 people, broke into the capital, captured King Vir Alakeshwara , his family members and close associates, delivered them to the ship and took them to China [24] . During the fourth voyage during the usual visit to the state of Pasay (also known as Samudra ) in the north of Sumatra, apparently on the way back from Hormuz to China, the crew of the main fleet Zheng He had to take part in the ongoing struggle between the monarch recognized by China ( Zayn al -Abidine ) and a bidder named Secander. The Chinese fleet brought gifts from Emperor Yongle to Zayn al-Abidin, but not to Secander, which aroused the anger of the latter, and he attacked the Chinese. Zheng He managed to wrap up what had happened to his advantage, defeat his troops, capture Secander himself and send him to China [25] [26] .
Between 1424 and 1431, after the death of Emperor Zhu Di, sea expeditions were temporarily suspended, and Zheng He himself served as the head of the Nanjing garrison for seven years [27] . During the last, seventh journey, Zheng He was over 60 years old. He no longer personally visited many countries where Chinese ships entered, and returned to China as early as 1433, while separate units of the fleet under the command of his assistants visited Mecca in 1434, as well as Sumatra and Java [28] .
Zheng He's expeditions promoted the cultural exchange of African and Asian countries with China and the establishment of trade relations between them. Detailed descriptions of the countries and cities visited by Chinese sailors were compiled. Their authors were members of the Zheng He expedition - Ma Huan , Fei Xin ( en: Fei Xin ) and Gong Zheng ( en: Gong Zhen ). Detailed "Zheng He He Navigation Charts" ("Zheng He Han Khan Hai Tu") [29] were also compiled.
Based on materials and news collected by the participants of the Zheng He sailing expeditions, in 1597, Luo Mao-dan wrote the novel Zheng He He Floats in the Western Ocean (San Bao Tai Jian Xi Yang Ji). As the domestic Sinologist A. V. Velgus pointed out, there is a lot of fiction in it, however, in some descriptions, the author definitely used data from historical and geographical sources [30] . The new routes laid by Zheng He and his team were later used by European sailors, who by the time of the Zheng He expeditions had not yet circled the Cape of Good Hope and had no idea about the East coast of Africa .
The History of the Ming Dynasty attaches great importance to the marine expeditions of Zheng He: “The annals say that the campaigns of Taijian Sanbao to the Western Seas were the most remarkable event at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty” [31] .
Admiral's death
According to the tradition transmitted by the heirs (through a nephew; see below) Zheng He, the admiral himself died on his return trip to China during his seventh voyage (i.e. in 1433), and his body was buried at sea. Shortly after his death, a ritual of “absentee funeral” was held in Semarang in Java, relying on the absence of the body of the deceased (“Janaza Bil Gaib”). Shoes and a lock of hair of the admiral [32] (according to another version, clothes and a hat [33] ) were delivered to Nanjing and were buried there near a cave Buddhist temple [32] .
Since the historical sources that have reached us do not contain any mention of Zheng He's activity after the seventh trip, most historians tend to agree with the version of the admiral's relatives. However, the Chinese historian Xu Yuhu (徐玉虎), in his biography Zheng He, made an assumption made on the basis of an analysis of personnel shifts in the state apparatus of the Minsk Empire that, in fact, the naval commander safely returned to Nanjing, served on the post of military commander of Nanjing and the commander of his fleet two more years and died only in 1435 [34] . A similar point of view was held by the Russian researcher A. A. Bokshchanin [31] .
On the southern slope of Nyushou Hill near Nanjing [35] , a Muslim tombstone was erected for Zheng He [32] . However, according to the stories of local residents, when in 1962 treasure hunters unearthed a grave in search of valuables, they could not find any remains or anything else [32] [36] .
In 1985, on the occasion of the 580th anniversary of Zheng He's first voyage, the cenotaph was restored [33] ( ).
On June 18, 2010, during construction work on the neighboring Zutang Hill (祖 堂 山), another grave of the Early Minnian period was discovered, also declared the tomb of Zheng He [37] . However, a few days later, after reading the remnants of the epitaph, Nanking archaeologists decided that in fact this grave belonged to another admiral eunuch, Hong Bao , who commanded a separate squadron during the seventh voyage of Zheng He [38] [39] .
Appearance
Eunuchs , castrated before puberty and therefore considered “clean” (童 净, tong jing ), often enjoyed favor with court ladies, who, among other things, were likened to behavior. In adulthood, their voices usually became high and piercing, their mood was unstable, and their feelings were violent manifestations, which was often expressed in fits of anger and profuse tears [40] .
Zheng He, although he was a eunuch, was by no means consistent with this stereotype. Although the intravital portraits of Zheng He were not preserved, according to the recollections of his family members (whose objectivity, however, can be doubted), he was "seven chi in height and was around five chi in girth" [40] (usually one Chi chi equal to 31.1 cm, but chi of shorter lengths, from about 27 cm) were used in some areas [41] . “His forehead was high, his cheeks did not seem saggy, his nose was small. His teeth were white and perfect in shape, his eyes were clear and his voice deep and strong, like the sound of a bell. He knew military affairs well and was used to battle ” [40] .
Another source of information about Zheng He's appearance was a document in which one of the imperial court dignitaries recommended the 35-year-old Zheng He to Emperor Zhu Di for his first appointment to the post of fleet commander. According to this document, his skin was "hard, like the skin of an orange." The distance between the eyebrows, according to which the Chinese tradition prescribed to determine luck and happiness, was "wide", which in turn predicted a successful career for him. “His eyebrows were like swords, and his forehead was wide, like a tiger”, which in turn should indicate a strength of character and ability to control. His mouth was “like the sea”, from which eloquent words poured. His eyes “shone as light is reflected in a fast river”, which was a sign of energy and vitality [42] .
Heirs
As a eunuch since childhood, Zheng He had no children of his own. However, he adopted one of his nephews, Zheng Khaozhao, who, unable to inherit the titles of his adoptive father, was able, nevertheless, to keep the property. Therefore, to date, there are people who consider themselves to be “descendants of Zheng He” [43] .
Memory
Almost forgotten in the first centuries after their completion, the voyages of the Zheng He fleet now occupy an important place in the historical memory of mankind.
For the Chinese, this is one of the episodes of the country's heroic past, demonstrating both the former greatness of the power and its early technological achievements, and the (comparatively) peaceful foreign policy of the country, in comparison with the colonial policy of Europeans [44] .
Many Chinese communities in Malaysia and Indonesia see Zheng He and Wang Jinghong as founding figures, almost like patron saints. Temples were erected in their honor and monuments erected [45] . The training ship of the Chinese Navy is named "Zheng He" [46] .
Due to its scale, its difference from previous and subsequent Chinese history, and its external similarity to the voyages, which several decades later began the European period of the Great geographical discoveries , Zheng He's voyages became one of the most famous episodes of Chinese history outside of China itself. For example, in 1997, Life magazine ranked 14th place in the list of 100 people who had the greatest influence on history in the last millennium (the other 3 Chinese in this list are Mao Zedong , Zhu Si and Cao Xueqin ) [47] .
According to some contemporary journalists (but not folkloristic experts), Zheng He could be a prototype of Sinbad the Sailor [48]
Notes
- Comments
- ↑ Nowadays, Kunyang (昆阳) is called Jinning, but the name of Kunyang (сохрани) has been retained by the county center.
- ↑ Levates gives 1381 as the date of the death of Ma Haji, but at the same time quotes the text of the stele, which states that he died (translated into the European calendar) on August 12, 1382 .
- ↑ According to Levathes, 1996 , p. 57-58, Ma He was captured in 1382 and made a eunuch three years later, in 1385 ; however, according to Dreyer, 2007 , p. 16, 201, both events occurred in 1382.
- ↑ In the era of the Ming Empire, there were 9 official ranks, each of which was of two categories - main (senior) and equal (junior). Certain official posts could only be occupied by officials of the corresponding rank.
- Sources
- ↑ German National Library , Berlin State Library , Bavarian State Library , etc. Record # 119209365 // General Normative Control (GND) - 2012—2016.
- ↑ 1 2 BNF identifier : Open Data Platform 2011.
- ↑ 1 2 National Library of Spain - 1711.
- ↑ 1 2 LIBRIS - 2018.
- ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica
- ↑ China Biographical Database
- ↑ Dreyer, 2007 , pp. 180-181.
- ↑ Kahn J. China Has an Ancient Mariner to Tell You About . The New York Times (July 20, 2005). Date of treatment June 15, 2011. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ Chunjiang Fu, Choo Yen Foo, Yaw Hoong Siew. The great explorer Cheng Ho: ambassador of peace . - Singapore: Asiapac Books Pte Ltd, 2005. - P. 7-8. - 153 p. - (Asiapac culture). - ISBN 9789812294104 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Levathes, 1996 , pp. 62-63.
- ↑ Tsai, 1996 , p. 154.
- ↑ Jonathan Neaman Lipman. Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China . - Honk Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1998 .-- P. 32–41. - 266 p. - ISBN 9622094686 .
- ↑ Tsai, 2002 , p. 38.
- ↑ Rozario, 2005 , p. 36.
- ↑ Levathes, 1996 , pp. 147-148.
- ↑ Levathes, 1996 , p. 57-58.
- ↑ Needham, 1971 , p. 487.
- ↑ Levathes, 1996 , p. 64-65.
- ↑ 1 2 Levathes, 1996 , pp. 72-73.
- ↑ 1 2 Tsai, 1996 , p. 157.
- ↑ Fujian, 2005 , p. eight.
- ↑ Dreyer, 2007 .
- ↑ Usov V.N. Zheng He // Chinese Spiritual Culture : Encyclopedia. - M .: Publishing company "Eastern Literature" RAS, 2009. - T. 4 . - S. 790 . - ISBN 978-5-02-036380-9 .
- ↑ Safronova A. L. Lanka in the XIV — XV centuries // History of the East: In 6 vols. - M .: Publishing House "Oriental Literature" RAS, 2000. - T. 2: East in the Middle Ages . - S. 489 . - ISBN 5-02-017711-3 .
- ↑ Levathes, 1996 , p. 139.
- ↑ Dreyer, 2007 , p. 79.
- ↑ The Cambridge History of China. - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. - Vol. 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part I. - P. 236. - 859 p. - ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2 .
- ↑ The Cambridge History of China. - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. - Vol. 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part I. - P. 302. - 859 p. - ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2 .
- ↑ Bokshchanin A. A. China in the second half of the XIV-XV centuries // History of the East: In 6 vols. - M .: Publishing House "Oriental Literature" RAS, 2000. - T. 2: East in the Middle Ages . - S. 544 . - ISBN 5-02-017711-3 .
- ↑ Velgus A.V. News of African countries and peoples and maritime communications in the Pacific and Indian Oceans (Chinese sources earlier than the 11th century). - M .: Science. The main edition of oriental literature, 1978. - S. 25. - 302 p.
- ↑ 1 2 Bokshchanin A. A. Magic light on the masts. Overseas expeditions of Zheng He // Faces of the Middle Kingdom. - M .: Publishing company "Oriental literature" RAS, 2002.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Levathes, 1996 , p. 172.
- ↑ 1 2 Fujian, 2005 , p. 45.
- ↑ Dreyer, 2007 , p. 166.
- ↑ Shipping news: Zheng He's sexcentenary . China Heritage Newsletter . Date of treatment June 1, 2011. Archived on August 18, 2011.
- ↑ Nicholas D. Kristof. 1492: The Prequel ( link unavailable) . The New York Times (June 6, 1999). Date of treatment September 1, 2010. Archived July 29, 2010.
- ↑ Zheng He's Tomb Found in Nanjing (inaccessible link) . CRIENGLISH.com (June 25, 2010). Date of treatment September 1, 2010. Archived August 10, 2010.
- ↑ 南京 发现 郑 和 下 西洋 副手 之 墓 (Nanjing discovered the tomb of Deputy Zheng He while sailing in the Western Ocean) (Chinese) (June 26, 2011).
- ↑ 南京 祖 堂 山 神秘 大 墓主 人 系 郑 和 副手 洪 保 (The owner of the mysterious grave on the Nanjing hill of Zutang is Deputy Zheng He, Hong Bao) (Chinese) (June 26, 2011).
- ↑ 1 2 3 Levathes, 1996 , p. 64.
- ↑ Dreyer, 2007 , p. 102.
- ↑ Levathes, 1996 , p. 87.
- ↑ Levathes, 1996 , p. 165.
- ↑ Dreyer, 2007 , p. 29.
- ↑ Levathes, 1996 , p. 190.
- ↑ Chinese Navy training ship Zheng He met in Vladivostok: Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation
- ↑ List of the 100 people who made the Millennium . Life Date of treatment September 1, 2010.
- ↑ e.g.: Richard Spencer, China's warring Sinbad reinvented as good neighbor , The Daily Telegraph , 11 Jul 2005
Literature
- Main literature
- Edward L. Dreyer. Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433. - New York: Pearson Longman, 2007 .-- 256 p. - (Library of World Biography Series). - ISBN 0321084438 .
- Louise Levathes. When China ruled the seas: the treasure fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433. - New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 .-- 252 p. - ISBN 0195112075 .
- Paul Rozario. Zheng He and the Treasure Fleet 1405-1433: A Modern Day Traveler's Guide from Antiquity to the Present. - Singapore: SNP International, 2005. - 160 p. - ISBN 9812480900 .
- Zheng He's voyages down the western seas . - Beijing: China Intercontinental Press, 2005 .-- 109 p. - ISBN 7508507088 .
- Supporting literature
- Bokshchanin A. A. China and the countries of the southern seas in the XIV — XVI centuries. - M .: Science. The main edition of oriental literature, 1968. - 212 p.
- Light Ya. M. Aft one hundred thousand li. - M .: Geografgiz, 1960 .-- 192 p. - 50,000 copies.
- Chan, Hok-Lam. Chapter 4: The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns // The Cambridge history of China: The Ming dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1. - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988 .-- Vol. 7. - P. 182-204. - 976 p. - ISBN 0521243327 .
- Chunjiang Fu; Choo Yen Foo; Yaw Hoong Siew. The great explorer Cheng Ho: ambassador of peace. - Singapore: Asiapac, 2005 .-- 153 p. - (Asiapac culture). - ISBN 9812294104 .
- Langlois, John D., Jr. Chapter 3: The Hung-wu reign // The Cambridge history of China: The Ming dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. - Vol. 7. - P. 107-181. - 976 p. - ISBN 0521243327 .
- Needham J. 29. Nautical technology. // Science and civilization in China: Physics and physical technology . - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. - Vol. 4. - P. 477-484. - 990 p. - ISBN 0521070600 .
- Shih-Shan Henry Tsai. Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. - Seattle, Wash .: University of Washington Press; Chesham: Combined Academic, 2002 .-- 286 p. - ISBN 0295981245 .
- Shih-shan Henry Tsai. Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. - New York: State University of New York Press, 1996 .-- 290 p. - (SUNY series in Chinese local studies). - ISBN 0791426874 .
Links
- Kahn, Joseph . China Has an Ancient Mariner to Tell You About , The New York Times .