Ivan I Danilovich Kalita

Origin and nickname

Ivan Kalita belonged to the Rurikovich dynasty , or rather, to the offspring of Vsevolod Yurievich the Big Nest (like most other princes of North-Eastern Russia). His father, Daniil Aleksandrovich ^[1] , was the youngest of the four sons of the grandson of Vsevolod, Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky . The brothers of Daniel, Dmitry Pereyaslavsky and Andrei Gorodetsky , were the Grand Dukes of Vladimir in 1276–1294 and 1294–1304, respectively, and he reigned his entire adult life in Moscow, the first unit ruler of which became between 1273 and 1282.

In total, Daniel had seven sons. Ivan became the fourth after Yuri , Alexander and Boris (though there is a hypothesis that he was born second, right after Yuri ^[2] ). His younger brother was Athanasius ; in addition, the sources mention Simon and Andrey, who apparently died as children. Whether Daniel had daughters is not known ^[3] . There is no information about the origin of his wife, which P. V. Dolgorukov calls Evdokia Alexandrovna ^[4] . On the male line, Ivan's second cousins ​​were his main enemy, Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy , co-ruler of the Grand Duchy, Alexander Vasilievich Suzdalsky , Boris Davydovich Dmitrovsky .

Prince Ivan was allegedly nicknamed "Kalita" very early. “Kalita” called a large purse that was worn on the belt. Ivan Danilovich was so called because of his generosity towards the poor ^[5] . According to Pafnuti Borovsky , the prince was "mercifully green and wearing a kalita belt, always poured silver, and, wherever it went, always giving the poor how much they would wash themselves" ^[6] .

Early years

Ivan Danilovich was born around 1288. Researchers determine his birthday on the basis of the fact that before his death the prince adopted monasticism under the name Ananias : the celebration of this Christian saint falls on October 1 according to the Julian calendar, and only eight days earlier, on September 23, the Orthodox celebrate the Conception of John the Baptist . Presumably, it is the Forerunner who is depicted on the seals of Kalita as his personal saint ^[7] . Thus, the date of birth of Ivan Danilovich is taken on October 1, 1288 ^[8] .

The first mention of Kalita in surviving sources dates back to 1296. Then the Novgorodians expelled the posadniks of Grand Duke Andrei and invited Daniel to reign, and he sent his son, Ivan, in his place. The latter was at that time about eight years old, so his father’s boyars were clearly engaged in affairs for him; Ivan's nominal rule did not last long, until 1298, and his name did not even get on the annals of the Novgorod princes. Nevertheless, the young prince, apparently, was able to get the very first political experience on the banks of Volkhov ^[9] .

In 1300, Ivan Danilovich acted as a receiver at the baptism of the eldest son of the Moscow boyar Fedor Byakont . His godson was named Eleutherius and subsequently became Metropolitan under the name Alexy ^[10] .

Under Yuri

In 1303, Daniil Alexandrovich died. His eldest son Yuri became the Moscow prince, and the remaining four Danilovichs, including Ivan, in spite of the then tradition did not receive any inheritance: apparently, the elder brother wanted to see only his “helpers” in them and was not going to divide his father's possessions into many parts. Meanwhile, the Moscow principality in these years has grown significantly in size. It absorbed Kolomna and Mozhaisk , that is, combined the entire basin of the Moscow River with access to the Oka ; in addition, Yuri controlled Pereyaslavl-Zalessky , which became the subject of a dispute between Moscow and Grand Duke Andrei. The latter died in 1304, and Yuri declared his claims to a great reign, finding an opponent in Mikhail Yaroslavich Tversky ^[11] .

In connection with this conflict, which quickly grew into an open war, Ivan Kalita is mentioned in the sources for the third time. The brother sent him to Pereyaslavl to keep this city in case of an attack by the Tverichs. Soon, Pereyaslavl actually approached the Tver army, led by the boyar Akinf Gavrilovich the Great . Having learned about the danger in advance, Ivan managed to bring the Pereyaslavlites to a godmother kiss and send for help; on the fourth day of the siege, he made a sortie, and at the same time he attacked the boyar Rodion Nestorovich (or his father Nestor Ryabets ^[12] ) who came from Moscow. In a fierce battle, the Muscovites won a complete victory. Akinf and his son-in-law Davyd died in a battle, after which there was "great joy and joy" in Pereyaslavl ^{[13] [14]} .

The ruler of the Golden Horde Tokhta handed the label to the great reign of Michael. Nevertheless, in the following years, the struggle between Tver and Moscow continued, and in connection with it, Ivan Danilovich is mentioned from time to time in the sources. In 1310, he represented his older brother at a church council in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, where he supported Metropolitan Peter , who was accused by the Tverites of simony ; as a result, a representative of the patriarch declared Peter innocent ^[15] . In 1316, it was allegedly exactly the intention demonstrated by Ivan to move the army to Tver that made Mikhail Yaroslavich interrupt his campaign in Novgorod and hurry back home ^[16] . In 1317, Kalita visited Novgorod as an ambassador and convinced the authorities of the republic to take part in the next war with Tver ^[17] .

In the end, Yuri received a great reign from the khan and achieved the execution of Michael (1317-1318). At the same time, the likelihood that Ivan Danilovich would become the next Moscow prince gradually increased. Yuri did not have sons. Alexander died very young in 1308 or 1309 ^[18] , and Boris reigned in Nizhny Novgorod from 1311 and also had no children. Kalita turned out to be the second most prominent member of the family of those who were in Moscow, and since the mid-1310s - the actual co-ruler of Yuri. The latter left him the guardian of princely power during his trips to the Horde: in the summer of 1315 - in the fall of 1317, in the summer of 1318 - in the spring of 1319. Boris Danilovich died in 1320, and Ivan went to the Horde himself, presumably in order to get a label from Khan Uzbek to Nizhny Novgorod ^[19] ( L. Cherepnin hypothesized that Kalita sought power over all of Russia bypassing his brother ^[20] ). He spent about two years in Sarai ^[21] . Kalita returned to Russia in 1322 with the Horde ambassador Akhmyl, who along the way, according to one version, elevated him to the reign of Nizhny Novgorod ^[22] .

The rise to power

In the spring of 1322, Ambassador Akhmyl announced to Yuri Danilovich that the label would be transferred to the great reign of Mikhail Tversky’s son, Dmitry the Terrible . The reason for this turn in the Horde politics was the concealment of Tver tribute by Yuri. At the same time, two sources, the Nikon Chronicle and the Vladimir Chronicler , claim that Ivan Kalita ruled Moscow for 18 years, that is, his reign began in 1322. Accordingly, in historiography there is a hypothesis that Akhmyl deprived Yuri of not only Vladimir, but also of Moscow reign; along with this, the traditional dating of the beginning of Kalita’s reign is preserved - 1325, when Yuri was killed in the capital of the Horde by Dmitry Tversky ^[23] .

The killer of Yuri acted at his own peril and risk, and therefore was immediately arrested. The fate of the great reign was again in doubt. It is known that Kalita was present at the brother's funeral (February 8, 1326 in Moscow), and then for the second time went to the Horde. According to one version, he went right away and his goal was to get a shortcut to Moscow reign ^[24] ; on the other, he spent only the second half of 1326 in Sarai and claimed a great reign after Dmitry the Terrible Ochi was executed. The Uzbek handed the label to Vladimir to his brother Dmitry Alexander (at the end of 1326) ^[25] . But soon another unexpected turn occurred: in August 1327, the Tverichi rebelled and killed the detachment of the Shevkal Horde who came with their prince. Alexander either could not interfere with his subjects, or even approved of their actions. Therefore, Uzbek summoned Kalita, Alexander Vasilievich Suzdalsky and a number of other princes; in the winter of 1327-1328, they again went to Russia, escorting a punitive army led by five dark men. By the name of one of the darkmen, this campaign was called "Fedorchuk's army" ^[26] .

In connection with these events, the Tver chronicler calls Kalita “we drive to the city of Tver” ^[27] . Presumably, Ivan and Alexander Suzdalsky led the Horde, to which they joined their squads, on the Volga ice to avoid robberies of the associated territories. Alexander Tverskoy, not accepting the battle, fled to Pskov, and all his possessions were devastated. “And many people will perish, but another will be taken captive, and Tver and the whole hail will be burned with fire” ^[28] . Immediately after this campaign, Kalita again went to the Horde and there he received a label for a great reign. However, Uzbek made an unusual decision: he divided the lands of the Principality of Vladimir into two parts. Ivan got Kostroma and control of Novgorod the Great, and actually Vladimir and the Volga region (presumably Nizhny Novgorod and Gorodets ) went to Alexander Suzdalsky. Only after the death of the latter in 1331 did these territories become under the control of Kalita ^[29] .

Beginning of the board

Kalita’s imprisonment on the “great table” was the beginning of a rather long peace period in the history of Vladimir Russia (1328–1368). One of the chroniclers writes immediately after the announcement that Ivan Danilovich received the label: “The silence was great for forty years and the terrible time to fight the Russian land and slaughtered Christians, and the Christians rested and repaired from the great languor, from the Tatar violence, and the quickness from melting silence is great throughout the earth ” ^[30] . This world came due to the fact that Kalita established the uninterrupted payment of tribute to the Horde. According to some historians, it was Ivan Danilovich who became the first great prince who collected tribute not only in his own possessions, but also in most of the other principalities of Vladimir land and himself transferred it to the khan (previously this was done through local princes, merchants and Baskakov ). This conclusion is drawn from one phrase in the Nikon Chronicle : in 1328, passing Kalita the label, Uzbek “and another princess to him to Moscow” ^[31] . The exclusive authority of Kalita was emphasized by a new title - “Prince of the Great of All Russia”, which was also worn by his descendants ^{[32] [33]} .

Mining money, the prince did not stop at the brutal violence. So, in Rostov, impoverished due to Tatar raids, crop failures and excessive spending of local princes on trips to Saray, Moscow governors Mina and Vasily Kocheva organized large-scale robberies at the end of 1328. They hung up the "Diocese of the city" Averky upside down, "and having laid their hands on Nya, and having left them a scolding" ^[34] . Many other Rostovites from different walks of life were abused and forced to give up the remnants of their property. Something similar happened in other Russian cities ^[35] .

Presumably Kalita kept some of the collected funds for himself. Its treasury could also be replenished due to the production of furs in the northern principalities, dependent on Moscow, due to the sale of bread, as well as due to internal stabilization. Kalita “correct the Russian land from the Tatei and from the robbers” ^[36] ; when he began the transition of the right to judge and punish serious crimes from large patrimonies to the princely administration, which had positive consequences ^[37] . In the possession of the Moscow prince received land and tax benefits for the first time, residents of other, less prosperous, Russian territories. So, the devastated Rostovites settled in the Radonezh volost to the north-east of Moscow; among these inhabitants was a boy from the boyar family Bartholomew, later known as Sergius of Radonezh ^[38] .

Kalita actively strengthened her political position in Russia, using peaceful means for this. In particular, he himself and his boyars bought villages and whole volosts in other principalities, which later became centers of Moscow influence. Dynastic marriages were also used. Presumably in 1328, Ivan Danilovich married one of his daughters to Konstantin Vasilyevich Rostovsky and achieved the division of the Principality of Rostov into two parts. The Borisoglebsky half was received by Konstantin, and three years later the ruler of the Sretensky half Fedor Vasilievich died, and Khan Uzbek handed over his possessions for a while to Kalita as part of a great reign. As a result, Konstantin became an obedient vassal of Moscow. His cousin Fedor Romanovich Belozersky got another Kalita's daughter as a wife; he also obeyed Moscow, and shortly after his death in 1380, Beloozero finally passed to the Moscow princes ^{[39] [40]} .

Only the third son-in-law of Kalita refused to obey him. It was the Yaroslavl prince Vasily Davydovich the Terrible Eyes , who did not get along well with his father-in-law. In 1339, he even intended to oppose Ivan Danilovich at the khan’s court, because of which he sent a whole army of five hundred horsemen to capture him on the way to Sarai. Vasily nevertheless broke into the Horde; reconciliation between Moscow and Yaroslavl took place after the death of Kalita ^{[41] [42]} .

Final victory over Tver

After Fedorchukova’s ratification, Konstantin Mikhailovich became the Tver prince, married to the daughter of Yuri Danilovich and peacefully disposed towards Moscow. Nevertheless, Kalita was to continue the war with Alexander Mikhailovich: Uzbek ordered him to catch the rebellious prince who had taken refuge in Pskov and bring him to Sarai for trial. First, Ivan Danilovich tried to convince his enemy to appear in the Horde voluntarily in order to save Russia from new disasters. He ignored the letters sent to him, and in the spring of 1329 an army of princes of Zaleski headed by Kalita moved to Pskov. The latter clearly did not want to bring the matter to a full-fledged war. At his request, Metropolitan Theognostus excommunicated both Alexander and all Pskovites from the church; therefore, when Ivan Danilovich brought the army to Opoka , he was met by the embassy from Pskov, reporting that the Tver prince had left for Livonia. An “ eternal peace ” was concluded in Bolotovo, according to which the Pskovs promised not to accept the princes from Lithuania ^[43] .

Nevertheless, in 1331, Alexander returned to Pskov as a confidant of the Lithuanian prince Gediminas and was accepted for reign ^[44] . Kalita tried to organize another campaign against him; this venture failed due to Novgorod's refusal to participate in it (1334). A year later, Alexander sent his eldest son Fyodor to the Horde to ask the Khan for forgiveness. The prince was received favorably. Therefore, his father went to Sarai, avoiding meeting with Moscow outposts (1337). The Uzbek announced that he forgives Alexander, and returned Tver to him, and also, according to one version, granted the title of “Grand Duke of Tver”, which guaranteed the carrier independence from Vladimir ^[45] . In 1338, negotiations were held between Alexander and Kalita, which ended in nothing: the Tver prince claimed his "estates", to which he allegedly included the great reign of Vladimir ^[46] .

Since the fall of 1338, Prince Fyodor was Alexander’s permanent representative in Sarai, while his father in Russia put together an anti-Moscow coalition. Allies of Tver became Yaroslavl, Beloozero, and also, possibly, other principalities. Ivan Danilovich, for his part, tried to find evidence of Alexander’s “treason” - his attempts to conclude an anti-Horde alliance with Lithuania. Kalita took another (last) trip to the Horde. The Uzbek, who for some time held a wait-and-see attitude, finally believed the arguments of the Moscow side and “got offended to the ground” ^[47] . After Kalita returned to Russia, the khan summoned Alexander, and in October 1339 ordered to kill both him and Fedor ^[48] .

These events marked the final victory of Moscow over Tver in the struggle for supremacy in Vladimir land. From this moment, Moscow no longer had dangerous competitors in the struggle for a great reign ^[49] .

Novgorod affairs

In 1331, a conflict began between Moscow and the Novgorod Republic. Khan Uzbek increased the size of tribute from Russian lands, arguing that a long time passed after the census of 1257-1259; perhaps, in reality, Kalita promised to pay more, thus thanking the khan for the label on Vladimir. The Moscow prince himself needed to distribute the new burdens among the principalities and cities. He decided to lay the bulk of these payments to Novgorod the Great, who in previous decades had begun to receive income from land on the Kama , Pechora and Vychegda . Accordingly, in 1332, Ivan Danilovich demanded from Novgorod not only the traditional "black forest", but also "Zakamsky silver . " Having been refused, he accused the Novgorod authorities of “treason”, occupied Torzhok and Bezhetsky Verkh , and at the end of 1332 he gathered an army to march on the capital of the republic. Novgorodians offered him peace on unknown conditions. Having been refused, they hastily fortified the city; in 1333, Archbishop Vasily Kalika began new negotiations, promising 500 rubles, but not Zakamsky silver. The world was not made this time ^[50] .

Immediately after negotiations with Moscow, Vasily Kalika went to Lithuania. Gedimin, whose possessions by that time included most of Western and Southern Russia, agreed to an alliance with Novgorod in exchange for the performance of his son Narimunt , who received "in his fatherland and grandfather" Ladoga , Oreshek fortress, Korelsk (Korelu) , Korel land and half Koporye . Pskov also became an ally of Novgorod, where Alexander Tverskoy reigned then. Kalita in response to these events married his eldest son Semyon to the daughter of Gedimin Aigusta-Anastasia (in the winter of 1333-1334). Metropolitan Theognost initiated a new series of negotiations, and Novgorod finally agreed to pay “Zakamsky silver.” In 1335, Ivan Danilovich visited this city in order to consolidate reconciliation; while Narimunt remained the prince of Novgorod, although he himself lived in Lithuania ^[51] .

In 1337, Kalita again presented some financial claims to Novgorod. Not receiving money in peace, he moved the army to Dvina land . Novgorod sources report that Muscovites were defeated, Moscow - that nevertheless a tribute was taken, and the battle ended without a clear winner. Novgorod, which did not receive proper support from Lithuania, quarreled with Pskov and Livonia during these years, sent the “black forest” to the Grand Duke and expressed his readiness for negotiations ^[52] . But in 1339 there was an unexpected turn: Ivan Danilovich demanded another payment from the republic - at the “request of the Tsarev”. It is not known whether there was any kind of extraordinary requisite or about the payment of the “black forest” for the coming years; in any case, Novgorod refused. This was the beginning of a new war that unfolded after the death of Kalita ^[53] .

"Purchase Kalita"

Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy in his will (1389) mentions “the purchase of his grandfather,” that is, Kalita — Uglich , Galich ( Galich Mersky ) and Beloozero . It is not clear what exactly is meant by “purchases” ^[54] . There is an assumption that Ivan Danilovich bought labels from the khan for life management of the three principalities, pledging to streamline tribute payments and close accumulated debts ^[55] .

Uglich was an important trading center on the Volga, and the Galician (Galich-Mer) and Belozersky principalities, vast and sparsely populated, were significant in the context of the confrontation between Moscow and Novgorod and were rich in fur-bearing animals ^[56] .

Church Policy and Construction

One of the most important achievements of Kalita was the conclusion of an alliance with the Orthodox Church. Metropolitan Peter regularly traveled to Moscow during his trips to Zalessky Russia and, from a certain moment (presumably from 1322), lived there, which seriously strengthened the authority of the local prince. Ivan built a “yard” for him in the eastern part of the Kremlin; after his death in 1327, at the initiative of Kalita, the metropolitan was counted among the saints (first local, Moscow, veneration, and later all-Russian) ^[57] . Ivan Danilovich wanted to make Archimandrite Theodore his successor, but he failed. The next metropolitan was the Greek Theognostus , who established good relations with Moscow, but at the same time tried to be above the inter-princely fights ^[58] .

On the advice of Peter Kalita, the Assumption Cathedral was erected (construction began on August 4, 1326, the consecration took place on August 14, 1327, in 1329 the Petroverigsky chapel was added to the church). The chronicler calls this building the first stone church in Moscow, although, according to some sources, Daniel founded a stone church ^[59] . By 1333, four more stone churches were built: the Demetrius Church, the Archangel Cathedral , the Church of St. John Climacus and the Cathedral of the Savior on Bor at the Spassky Monastery. The goal of all this activity was to make Moscow a major church center, which would not be inferior to Vladimir and could become the permanent residence of the Metropolitan ^[60] .

Under Kalita, a new oak Moscow Kremlin was built (1339–1340) ^[61] .

At the end of the reign, Ivan Danilovich built a church in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky in the name of the Assumption of the Virgin on Goritsy, not far from the place where the victory over the Tverichs was won in 1304 ^[62] .

Death and Testament

The last major event of the reign of Kalita was a trip to Smolensk, which was attended by troops of the Horde and the princes of Zalessia. The immediate results of the campaign were modest. The Horde and their vassals plundered the Smolensk land and retreated ^[63] - the Tatars “with much fullness and wealth”, and the Russians - “sound and safe” ^[64] . Presumably it was a show of force against Lithuania in order to keep Gediminas from the Uzbek-planned war with Poland. The goals were achieved: in the summer of 1340, the Horde invaded Lesser Poland , thus preventing the transition to the Piasts of Galicia-Volyn Rus . But this happened after the death of the Moscow prince ^[65] .

It is known that at the beginning of 1340, Kalita, who had been sick for a long time, was tonsured a monk under the name Ananias . He died on March 31 and was buried the next day in the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow. Two versions of the princely will have been preserved, the difference between which is insignificant: in one there are several more villages and volosts. Some historians believe that these are two different documents, others - that the will is one, and the discrepancies appeared due to scribes. Ivan Danilovich divided the principality between the three sons who survived him, and the capital became the inseparable property of all three. The eldest son received more than the others, and this laid the foundations of the tradition, in accordance with which the wills of all subsequent Moscow princes were compiled. Seed Kalita bequeathed to the principal cities of the Principality after Moscow, Mozhaisk and Kolomna ^[66] .

Ivan Kalita was married twice. His first wife was called Elena , and her origin is not known for sure. There is a hypothesis that she was the daughter of Prince Smolensk Alexander Glebovich ^[67] . In this marriage were born:

1. Semyon Ivanovich the Proud (1317-1353)
2. Daniil Ivanovich (born December 11, 1319/1320 ^[68] )
3. Ivan II Ivanovich Red (March 30, 1326 - November 13, 1359)
4. Andrei Ivanovich Serpukhovskoy (July 4, 1327 - June 6, 1353)
5. Maria Ivanovna (died in 1365), since 1328 the wife of Prince Rostov Konstantin Vasilyevich
6. Evdokia Ivanovna (died in 1342), wife of Prince Yaroslavsky Vasily Davydovich the Terrible Ochi
7. Theodosia Ivanovna (died after 1389), wife of Prince Belozersky Fyodor Romanovich ^[40]

Princess Elena died on March 1, 1331 ^[69] . A year later, Kalita married again, and only his name is known about his second wife - Ulyana . According to A. V. Ekzemplyarsky , in his second marriage, Ivan Danilovich had only one daughter ^[70] . V. A. Kuchkin suggested that the “lesser children” appearing in the princely will are the daughters of Ulyana, bearing the names Maria and Theodosius. One of them was alive in 1359; nothing else is known about the other ^[71] .

Metropolitan Cyprian in a letter to Dmitry Donskoy called Kalita “pious and memorable” and even “holy” ^[72] . There are no accusations in the annals of the death of Alexander and Fyodor Tversky - even in the "Tale of the Murder of Alexander Tversky" ^[73] .

Vasily Klyuchevsky spoke of Ivan Danilovich with a certain sympathy, although he had a low opinion of the first Moscow princes as a whole ^[74] . According to him, Kalita “was the first to bring the Russian population out of the gloom and stupor that its external misfortunes plunged into. An exemplary organizer of his inheritance, who knew how to maintain public safety and silence in it, the Moscow prince, having received the title of great, made it possible to feel the benefits of his policy to other parts of North-Eastern Russia. With this, he prepared himself widespread popularity, that is, the basis for further successes ” ^[75] . The historian attached great importance to the “great silence” that occurred during Kalita: thanks to her, by the middle of the XIV century the first generation had grown up, which “began to wean from the horde of fear, from the nervous trembling of the fathers at the thought of the Tatar” ^[76] .

Kalita won the final victory over Tver. Alexander’s execution meant the Horde’s refusal to divide and conquer politics within Vladimir Russia. One of the reasons for this, according to A. Borisov, is “the delicate policy of Ivan Kalita” ^[49] . One of the first to give land to his servants. Thus, Kalita stands at the origins of land tenure. Many researchers consider Borisku Vorkov mentioned in his will as one of the first or even the very first Russian landowner ^[77] .

• Moskvich plant released a car based on Moskvich-2141 Moskvich Ivan Kalita
• In 2006, the Moscow Region awards were established: the Order of Ivan Kalita and the Medal of the Order of Ivan Kalita