Gallic language

Known for several hundred inscriptions: lapidary (on stones), on ceramic vessels, coins, lead and zinc plates. Gallic texts found on the territory of modern France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Belgium. The oldest Gallic inscriptions date back to the 6th century BC. e. and executed in Cisalpine Gaul by the ancient Italian alphabet .

• The Lugano alphabet was used in Cisalpine Gaul:

AEIKLMNOPRSTΘUVXZ the Lugano alphabet does not distinguish between voiced and deaf arched, that is, P represents / b / or / n /, T for / d / or / t /, K for / g / or / k /. Z probably means / c /. U / y / and V / w / differ in only one early inscription. Θ, apparently, means / t /, X - / g / (Lejeune 1971, Solinas 1985).

• The Eastern Greek alphabet was used in southern Transalpine Gaul:

αβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρσττχχω

χ is used for [χ], θ for / TS /, ου for / u /, / ū /, / w /, η and ω for long and short / e /, / ē / and / o /, / ō /, while ι is for short / i /, ει is for / ī /. Note that sigma in eastern Greek writing looks like Ϲ (the so-called lunar sigma ). All Greek letters were used except phi and psi .

• The Latin alphabet (monumental and cursive) was used most actively in Roman Gaul, except for its southern part, although there are texts with Latin spelling:

ABCDÐEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTUVXZ abcdðefghiklmnopqrstuvxz

G and K were sometimes used interchangeably (especially after R). Ð / ð , ds and s can be t / t ^s /. X, x is [χ] or / ks /. Q is used in rare cases (eg Sequanni , Equos ) and can be archaism (saved * k ^w ) or, as in Latin, be an alternative spelling of the syllable -cu- (for the original / kuu /, / kou / or / kom-u / ) ^[1] Ð and ð are used here to represent the so-called tau gallicum (Gallic dental affricates), the exact symbol of which was never added to Unicode . Unlike the style for Ð, the center line extends right in the middle through the style tau gallicum and also does not look beyond the borders of the character ^[2] . It is also significant to use a letter like iota longa for long i. This sound is transliterated either by a capital Latin “I” or a lowercase “i” with an acute sign. The question still remains unclear to what extent, using the Greek letters Η “ this ” and Ω “ omega ”, the long vowels ē and ō were transmitted; there is reason to believe that they, at least in some cases, did not convey a special quantity , but the quality of the indicated vowels (as well as in the ancient Greek language): “this” is a long / short closed / ẹ / or / i /, and omega - long / short closed / ọ / or / u /.

Phonology

• vowels:
  • brief: a, e, i, ou
  • long ā, ē, ī, (ō), ū
• half-vowels: w, y
• closing:
  • deaf: p, t, k
  • voiced: b, d, g
• sonants
  • nasal: m, n
  • smooth r, l
• slotted: s
• affricate: t ^s

[χ] - allophone / k / before / t /.

Sound Laws

• The Gallic language belonged to the Celtic "P-languages", where the Indo-European / k ^w / gave / p / (cf. mapon 'son', Irl. Mac; epon 'horse', Latin equos ). However, although it is believed that Gallic is a P-Celtic language, some inscriptions (for example, a calendar from Coligny) may show Q-Celtic features ^[3] .
• Also: gw becomes w, for example, gwediūmi> uediiumi or uediiu-mi “pray, pray (I)” (cf. Irl. Guidhim, Wall. Gweddi “pray”).
• PIE ds, dz gives / ts /, it is written ð, for example, * nedz-tamo> neððamon (compare irl. Nesamh "closest", Wall. Nesaf "next").
• PIE eu gives ou, and subsequently ō, for example, * teutā> touta> tōta “people, tribe” (compare Irl. Tuath, Wall. Tud “people”).
• It should also be mentioned that intervocal / st / becomes affricate [ts] (alveolar occlusal + deaf alveolar ocular) and intervocal / sr / becomes [ðr] and / str / becomes [þr]. Finally, when the labial or velar closure is in front of / t / or / s /, both sounds merge into fricative [x].

Morphology

Name

In Gallic there were up to 6 or 7 declensions ^[4] The most reliable information on the declension of the two most frequent nominal foundations: with thematic -a and -o. An empty cell means a lack of information.

The data on the remaining declensions are more partial, but in general the picture looks like this:

In some cases, historical evolution is observed, for example, dates. units the number of a-stems -āi in the oldest inscriptions is modified: * -ăi and, finally, -ī (as in the Ir. a-basic nouns with weakened (weak) consonants: im. lámh “hand, arm” (c. Gallsk . lāmā) and dates láimh (<* lāmi; compare Gallic lāmāi> * lāmăi> lāmī). Further, the instrumental plural began to mix with the date plural (dates atrebo and matrebo vs. instrumental gobedbi and suiorebe); in modern island Celtic languages ​​(meaning Gaelic and Irish , as in the Welsh cases are lost) the historical form of instrumentalis completely replaced the historical dative.

In the o-foundations, the Gallic also violates the laws - the pronoun ending in the forms of them. plural -oi and gender. units -ī instead of the expected -ōs and -os stored in Celtiberian (-oś, -o). In a-basics, an inherited genus. units -as is attested, but has subsequently been replaced by -ias, like the Celtic island dialects. Expected genus. many on -a-om was not found, but in the text from Larzak the form on -anom ^[5] (against the Celtiber archaic -aum) is attested ^[6] .

Verb

The verb so far, despite the noticeable progress in language learning, is known worse than the name: marked forms of presentation (thematic and atematic - see below), preterite (sigmatic, reduplicated, and formed with the suffix -u-); the media pass is characterized by the element -r-. The relative forms of a finite verb ^{[7] also} became known. The verb system shows a number of innovations in comparison with the reconstructed Celtic state ^[8] . The Indo-European s-aorist developed into the so-called Gallic t-preterite, which was formed by the merger of the old ending of the 3rd person. imperfect numbers - t - with perfect ending of the 3rd person the numbers - u or - e and subsequent affixation with all forms of t-preterite. Similarly, s-preterite was formed by expanding - ss (originally also the 3rd person singular) and affixing - it to the 3rd person singular. numbers (to distinguish as such). The 3rd person plural is also marked by adding postpositive -s in the past tense ^[9] .

Conjugation of the verb in the Gallic is still not very well known, despite the finds of large texts in 1974-1997. Apparently, in the Gallic, like, for example, ancient Greek, the Indo-European verbs on -mi ^[10] (atematic) and on -o (thematic) are preserved. Gallsky possessed 5 moods: real, subjunctive, desirable, imperative, and in addition an indefinite form (in the form of a verb name) and at least 3 times: present, future and preterite - the formation features of which are mentioned above ^[11] . Christopher Gwynn listed a number of surviving verbal forms of the Gallic in the form of a list ^[12] .

Numerals

Ordinal numbers with graffiti La Grofesank:

1. cintus, cintuxos ( Wall. cynt “before”, cyntaf “first”, Bret. kent “front”, other-Irish céta , Irl. céad “first”)
2. allos (Wall. ail , Bret. eil , other-irl. aile "other, second", irl. eile )
3. tritios (Wall. trydydd , Bret. trede , other-irl. treide , irl. treas )
4. petuarios (Wall. Pedwerydd , Bret. Pevare , Dr.-Ir. cethramad )
5. pinpetos (wall. pumed , bret. pempet , dr. cóiced )
6. suexos (possibly spelled suextos ; Wall. chweched , Bret. c'hwec'hved , irl. seissed )
7. sextametos (Wall. saithfed , Bret. seizhved , al-Ir. sechtmad )
8. oxtumetos (Wall. wythfed , Bret. eizhved , other-irl. ochtmad )
9. nametos (Wall. nawfed , Bret. naved , al-Ir. nómad )
10. decametos , decometos (wall. degfed , bret. degvet , dr.- dell . dechmad , celtiber. dekametam )

Syntax

Gauls are traditionally considered the ancestors of the French and Belgian Walloons ( belgi ), and before the emergence of scientific comparative historical linguistics, it was sometimes even stated (“ Por Royal Grammar ”) that French is a descendant of the Gallic language , and the similarity with Latin is explained by borrowings from it. However, the influence of the Gallic language ^[13] (in other words, the Celtic substrate ) on French has not yet been proved to the same extent as the obvious manifestation of the changes caused by the powerful layer of influences of the Germanic languages at different levels, and it is Latin roots that predominate in the main roots of the French. About 180 words can be attributed to Gallic elements ^{[14] [15] [16]} ( including dialects ), for example, bec 'beak', chêne 'oak', the remains of the decimal number system , for example, quatre-vingts' 80 '(' 4 x 20 '). Apparently, this is due to the fact that the extinction of the Gallic and the transition of the Gauls to the popular Latin occurred very quickly and had already ended by the time the Old French was formed. It should also be borne in mind that Latin and Gallic - which is accepted by the whole scientific community - were quite close to each other as Italian and Old Celtic languages, a number of words differed only in endings or grammatical form - all this also accelerated the transition to Latin and makes the etymology of some modern French words, as they can be both Latin and Celtic. It is known, for example, that because of the understanding by the Gauls of the meaning of the words of Latin, Julius Caesar had to conduct correspondence not in Latin, but in Greek, in order to avoid the risk of reading if the hostile Gallic tribes intercepted messages.

Greek, Latin, and early medieval authors retained a large number of glosses and even small fragments of phrases in the Gallic language. Of particular note is Marcellus Empiricus of Bordeaux . He has in his book on medicines ^[17] such texts 10.

Magic Formulas

Gallic magic formulas of Marcellus of Bourdigal ^[18]

1. excicum acrisos (for cleaning, washing eyes).
2. resonco hregan gresso (for removing mote from the eye).
3. in mon dercomarcos axatison (for eye swelling).
4. rica rica soro (on barley).
5. κυρια κυρια κασσαρια σουρωρβι (for barley).
6. vigaria gasaria (on barley).
7. argidam margidam sturgidam (for toothache).
8. crisi crasi ca neras i (for sore throat pain).
9. heilen prosaggeri vome si polla nabuliet onodieni iden elilon (for throat obstruction)
10. xi exucricone xu criglionalsus scrisu miovelor exugri conexu grilau (with throat obstruction).

Other phrases

Vita Sancti Symphoriani, the biography of the martyr Simphorian of Oton (165-180), was created around the 5th century. According to some scholars (see below), a whole sentence in Late Gallic has been preserved in this source.

Manuscripts (according to William Meyer):

Nate nate Synforiane meniento b & oto diuo hoc est memorare dei tui ^[19]

- Cod. monac. lat. 4585

Nati nati synforiani, mentem obeto dotiuo

- Codex de Turin DV 3

According to the transcription of Rudolf Turneysen ^[20] :

uenerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et nota illum uoce Gallica monuit dicens: "nate, nate Synforiane, mentobeto to diuo . "

The text is damaged and, as can be seen above, differs in manuscripts ^[21] and in this form is found in only two manuscripts from the many versions of “Martyrdom of St. Symphorian”. This reconstruction belongs to the Celtologist Turneysen; she is supported by Joseph Monard ^[22]

It is noteworthy that part of the phrase mentobeto to diuo probably reflects vulgar Latin or its influence on the Gallic. According to Adams ^[23] , mentobeto was an imperative of the compound verb mente habere ; from here came St. Fr. mentevoir and provence. mentaure .

In the publication Acta sanctorum (Aug. IV, p. 497) this part of the life was printed in a form closer to Latin (the same text is present in the book printed in Vienna in 1522):

Venerabilis autem mater sua de muro nota illum voce commonuit dicens: " nate, nate Symphoriane, in mente habe Deum vivum. Resume constantiam, fili. Timere non possumus mortem, quae sine dubio perducit ad vitam. "

Glosses

Ancient Greek and especially Latin authors, as already mentioned, preserved hundreds of Gallic and (much less) Galatian glosses, from the 5th century BC. e. until the VI century AD. From Plautus to Fortunatus, Latin texts are full of Gallic words. For example, the glosses of Hesychius of Alexandria ^[24] , among other things, provide valuable information about the Galatian dialect in Asia Minor.

• ἀβράνας · Κελτοὶ τοὺς κερκοπιθήκους abránas [acc.pl.]: Celts have long-tailed monkeys

• αδες · πόδες. ἔνιοι δὲ ἀηδές ades [nom.-acc.pl./acc.sg.]: legs; for some, disagree (considered Gallic or Galatian in form)

• Ἀδριανοί · Κελτοί, οἱ παρὰ τὴν Ἀδρίαν περίοικοι Adrianoí: Celts living near the Adriatic [cf. lat Hadriānī]

• † βαρακάκαι [leg. βράκκαι?] · † ἅγιοι διαφέραι † [leg. αἴγειαι διφθέραι?], παρὰ Κελτοῖς brákkai: Celtic leather pants [cf. lat brācae]

• βαρδοί · ἀοιδοὶ παρὰ Γαλάταις bardoí: singers among the Galatians [cf. lat bardī]

• † ἔντριτον · τὸ διονίου ἔμβρωμα, ὃ Γαλάται ἔμβρεκτόν φασιν † éntriton: food ... which the Galatians call émbrekton [cf. lat imbractum?]

• ἤλεκτρος · μέταλλον χρυσίζον. φασὶ δὲ αὐτὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἐν τῇ Κελτικῇ χώρᾳ Ἠριδανοῦ τοῦτο κομίζεσθαι τῶν αἰγείρων. τὰ δάκρυα τῶν Ἡλιάδων ḗlektros ['amber']: golden metal; they say that in the country of the Celts at Eridanus this is the name of poplars; tears of Heliad (Iliad).

• καίτρεαι · ὅπλα Ἰβηρικά · οἱ δὲ κυρτίας kaítreai: Iberian weapon; some kurtías [cf. lat caetrae ~ cētrae]

• κάρνον [leg. κάρνυξ?] · τὴν σάλπιγγα Γαλάται kárnon or kárnyx: pipe [acc.sg.] in the Galatians

• Κελτοί · ἔθνος ἕτερον Γαλατῶν Keltoí: another tribe of the Galatians [cf. lat Celtae]

• κυρτίας · Κελτοὶ τὰς ἀσπίδας kurtías [acc.pl.]: Celtic word, shields

• λειούσματα ἢ λεγούσματα · εἶδος καταφράκτου. Γαλάται leioúsmata or legoúsmata: view of the cataphract armor of the galatians

• λεύγη · μέτρον τι Γαλατικόν leúgē: unit of measure for the Galatians [cf. lat leuga]

• μαδάρεις · τὰς πλατυτέρας λόγχας τῶν κεράτων. Κελτοί madáreis: spears (in shape) are flatter [acc.pl.] than horns (tips in the form of a tip of a horn), among Celts [cf. lat matarēs]

More recently, the largest monument of the Gallic was the calendar from Coligny ^[25] . However, since 1970, finds have appeared of a number of well-preserved and relatively large texts, including a possible spell on a lead plate from Larzac, which is the largest surviving Gallic text. This lead record was found in 1983 at L'Hospitale du Larzac . The text in on both sides of two small pieces of lead. This text, perhaps, is a defixio - a tablet with a magic curse ^[26] . The text, according to some experts, is a magic spell against a certain Severa Tertionicna and a group of women (possibly rivaling sorceresses or druides ), but the exact interpretation of the text, due to obvious gaps in our knowledge of Gallic morphology and vocabulary, remains partially unclear ^[27] .

Gallic text from Larzac

(According to R. Marichal, modified by M. Lejeune, L. Fleuriot, and P.-Y. Lambert ^[11] .)

Label 1a (inside)

de bnanom bricto [m i- / -n eainom anuana sanander [

na brictom uidlaias uidlu [/ tigontias so adgagsona seue [rim

tertionicnim lidssatim liciatim / eianom uoduiuoderce lunget

..utonid ponc nitixsintor si [es / duscelinatia ineianon anuan [a

esi andernados brictom bano [na / flatucias paulla dona politi [us

iaia duxtir ediagias poti [ta m- / -atir paullias seuera du [xtir

ualentos dona paullius / adiega matir aiias

potita dona prim [ius / abesias

Nameplate 1b

etic eiotinios co et [ic / rufina casta dona [

nonus coetic diligentir soc [/ ulationicnom aucitionim [

aterem potiti ulatucia mat [/ banonias ne incitas biontutu [ue

seuerim licinaue tertioni [cnim / eiabi tiopritom biietutu semit [

retet seuera tertionicna / ne incitas biontutus ... du [

anatia nepi anda .. /] incors onda ... [

] donicon [/] incarata

Nameplate 2a

] a senit conectos [/] onda bocca nene. [

] rionti onda boca ne [/ .on barnaunom ponc nit-

issintor sies eianepian / digs ne lisantim ne licia-

tim ne rodatim biont- / utu semnanom sagitiont-

ias seuerim lissatim licia- / tim anandognam acolut [

utanit andognam [/ da bocca [/ diom ... [ne [

Nameplate 2b

aia [...] cicena [/ nitianncobueðliðat [

iasuolsonponne / antumnos nepon

nesliciata neosuode / neiauodercos nepon

su biiontutu semn- / anom adsaxs nadoc[

suet petidsiont sies / peti sagitiontias seu-

[er]im tertio lissatim[ / ..]s anandogna […

…]ictontias.['

Приведённый ниже перевод следует переводу на французский, сделанному П.-И. Ламбером. Многие слова, однако, нечитаемы, потому перевод частичен, чему способствует ограниченное понимание галльского.

часть 1a Отправь чары этих женщин против их имен (которые) ниже, (есть) очаровывающие чары ведьм для очарования ведьм. О, Adsagsona (имя богини), обрати дважды своё внимание на Северу Tertionicna их волшебницу письмен и науз (нитей с магическим узлами), так что они будут освобождать его, вместе с проклятием против их имен, что делает заклинание группы ниже […]

часть 1, b […]этих женщинх вышеназванных, очаровавших его таким образом, что он стал беспомощным […]

часть 2а […] всякий человек, занимающий должность судьи, на какового бы они наложили заклятие, отменяющее заклятие наложенное на сего человека;чтобы этого не могло там быть колдовством чар ведьмы письмен, ведьмы наузов (узлов на веревочке), ведьмы дарителей, находящейся среди этих женщин, которые ищут Северу, в письменной форме ведьму, ведьму науз, иностранных[…]

часть 2b это не побег от злых чар […]

Словарик ^[15] к этому тексту.

• Adiega [ли]
• Adsagsona [богиня]
• Aiia [имя]
• anation (душа)
• antumnos, antedubno- (ср. валл. annwn , загробный мир)
• Banona [имя]
• bena- / bano- : (женщина, ср. ирл. ben )
• biietutu : (чтобы он был)
• biontutu / biiontutu / biontutus : (чтобы они были)
• bocca : (рот)
• brixta / brixtom : (заклятие, откуда исп. bruxa — ведьма)
• cico- : (мышца, мясо, плоть)
• duo / dui : (число 2)
• duxtir : (дочь)
• matir : (мать)
• nato / natu : (песня, поэма)
• ulato- : (чиновник)
• Ulatucia [ЛИ]
• vid- / vissu- / vistu- : (знание / знания)

Кроме того, стали известны ещё несколько памятников, предположительно литературного характера: обломок тарелки из Лезу ^[28] и большая черепица из местечка Шатобле ^[29] , возможно, несущая на себе версифицированный текст, или же, по альтернативной точке зрения — брачный контракт.

Однако и первая крупная надпись — заклятие на вотивной табличке из Шамальер — также имеет первостатейную важность сразу по нескольким аспектам ^{[30] [31]} . На маленькой свинцовой пластинке латинским алфавитом написаны 12 строк; вероятно, этот текст являлся проклятием или заклятием, упоминающим бога Mapon-. Вероятно, табличка была сделана в середине I века н. e.

andedíon uediíumí diíiuion risun

artiumapon arueriíatin [или aritu?]

lopites sní e dd ic sos brixtía anderon [возможно, lotites?]

clucionfloron nigrínon adgarion aemilí

on paterin claudíon legitumon caelion

pelign claudío pelign marcion uictorin asiatí

con a dd edillí etic se couitoncnaman [или, возможно, poncnaman?]

tonc siíontío meíon ponc se sit bue

tid ollon reguccambion exsops

pissíiumí tsoc cantírtssu ison son [возможно, rissuis onson?]

bissíet luge dessummiíis luge

dessumíis luge dessumíís luxe

Тексты, написанные на реконструированном, искусственном галльском языке используются в большинстве песен швейцарской группы Eluveitie , играющей кельтский фолк-метал.

• Delamarre, X. (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise (2e éd.). Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-237-6
• Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003). La langue gauloise (2e éd.) Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-224-4
• Lejeune, Michel (1971). Lepontica (Monographies linguistiques, 1). Paris: Société d'edition «les Belles Lettres»
• Meid, Wolfgang (1994) Gaulish Inscriptions . Budapest: Archaeolingua. ISBN 963-8046-06-6
• Recueil des inscriptions gauloises (XLVe supplément à «GALLIA»), éd. Paul-Marie Duval et al. 4 vols. Paris: CNRS, 1985—2002. ISBN 2-271-05844-9
• Solinas, Patrizia (1995). 'Il celtico in Italia'. Studi Etruschi 60:311-408
• Jean-Paul Savignac, Merde à César , Edition de la Différence, 2000 ISBN 2-7291-1323-1
• Jean-Paul Savignac, Dictionnaire français-gaulois , Edition de la Différence, 2004 ISBN 2-7291-1529-3
• Галльский язык // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.

• LA Curchin, «Gaulish language» (англ.)
• Gaulish language on TIED (англ.)
• Колиньи (англ.)
• Две галльские надписи в тезаурусе TITUS
• Языки и письменность римской Галлии (фр.)
• L'Arbre Celtique (фр.)
• Корпус галльских и кельтиберских надписей онлайн (фр.)