The LGBT movement in Germany experienced three waves in its development. Since the end of the nineteenth century (before the Nazis came to power), the first in world history studies of the nature of homosexuality , magazines for gays and lesbians and films about them appeared. The second wave (1960-1980s) led to the formation of human rights LGBT organizations, the formation of gay culture in Germany, the first demonstrations and the gay pride . The current stage of the German LGBT movement was marked by the development of a wide network of narrow-profile LGBT organizations, legislative regulation of the status of same-sex families and the prohibition of discrimination against homosexuals. In 2017, gay marriage was legalized in the country with the right to joint adoption of children.
The origin of the homosexual movement in Germany
The legal status of homosexual relationships in the German Empire
The Great French Revolution (1789-1799) and the proclamation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789) laid the foundation for the process of separating the church from the state and laid the foundations for liberalizing the attitude towards homosexuals in Western Europe. In 1787, in the criminal code of the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II , acting on the hereditary lands of the Hapsburgs , the death penalty for same-sex relations was abolished and replaced by fines.
In 1791, homosexual relations were officially decriminalized in France , which was also preserved in the French Penal Code of 1810. Thanks to the Napoleonic Wars, French law spread to many areas under its control, including some German states.
On September 30, 1817, a homosexual man was publicly executed in Switzerland for killing his lover. This story deeply touched the German-speaking writer Heinrich Hoessley ( him. Heinrich Hössli ), as a result of which he conducted his own investigation of this story and based on it wrote the book "Eros: Man’s Love of the Greeks" ( him, Eros. Die Männerliebe der Griechen ), which is considered the first work to protect homosexuality in modern history.
In 1870, the Prussian criminal legislation punishing same-sex relationships was adopted by the North German Union [1] , and in 1871 it spread to the entire German Empire as a result of the unification of German states into a single state [2] . From January 1, 1872, the new code comes into force, in it the paragraph about “unnatural fornication” finally receives the number 175 , with which it becomes notorious.
Ulrichs and Kertbeni publications
German lawyer and writer Karl Heinrich Ulrichs , who lived in the Kingdom of Hanover , where homosexuality was not criminally prosecuted, has been studying the phenomenon of homosexuality since the 1850s. He published many articles from the series “The Mysteries of Male Love” ( German: Räthsel der mannmännlichen Liebe ), in which he, in particular, developed the early concept of sexual orientation . Studying human sexuality, Ulrichs distinguished, on the one hand, “dionings” ( Dioninge ), men who love women, and women who love men, and, on the other hand, “ urnings ” ( Germans Urninge ), men, loving men, and "Urnind" ( it. Urninden ) - women, loving women [3] [4] . Ulrichs believed that Uranism is an innate property of man and therefore homosexuals should not be brought to criminal responsibility.
In 1864, Ulrichs in his work “Vindex. Social-juristische Studien über mannmännliche Geschlechtsliebe, published in Leipzig , not only demanded the termination of criminal punishment and public reprimand of same-sex love, but also encouraged homosexuals to unite and fight for their civil rights [5] . In his studies, Ulrichs argued that in each city with more than 100,000 inhabitants there are at least 50 adult homosexuals, and in the entire German Empire there should be up to 35,000 homosexuals [5] . With his numerous publications, Ulrichs tried to arouse in homosexuals the desire for emancipation and the struggle for his rights, as well as to explain to society the consequences of the persecution of same-sex love [6] .
In the summer of 1869, Karl Marx sent one of the brochures of Ulrichs to Friedrich Engels [7] In his letter of June 22, 1869, Marx wrote: [7] .
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August 29, 1867 at a meeting of German lawyers in Munich , which was attended by more than 500 people, Ulrichs first suggested not to consider homosexual relations from the point of view of offenses and to cancel all existing criminal prosecutions of homosexuals. Such a proposal did not delight lawyers who did not allow Ulrichs to end his speech, considering his report scandalous, “overly sexualized” and vicious [8] [3] .
In 1870, Ulrichs tries to organize a journal for homosexuals, Uranus, but after the release of the first issue, the journal ceases to exist [9] . Soon in 1880, Ulrichs, due to the increasingly deteriorating attitudes of his colleagues towards him and society as a whole towards his works, emigrated to Italy [9] . He died in 1895 in the small Italian town of Aquila in poverty and oblivion [1] .
In 1869, the Berlin publicist of Hungarian origin, Karl Maria Kertbeni , dealing with human rights issues, anonymously issued a leaflet in which he spoke out against the criminal prosecution of same-sex relationships. In it, he first used the words "homosexuality" and "heterosexuality" [9] .
Pathologizing Homosexuality
At the end of the nineteenth century, thanks to the publication of the scientific work of many eminent psychiatrists, homosexuality begins to be considered a mental illness [10] . It should be noted that the terms “homosexuality” and “heterosexuality” at that time meant exclusively sexual behavior, that is, specific sexual contacts, and not feelings, desires or fantasies [11] .
In 1869, the Berlin psychiatrist Karl Westphal introduced the term “contra-sexuality” ( German Konträrsexualität ) for people who have the same sex, and people who wear the opposite sex. Westphal relates such people to the mentally ill [9] .
In 1886, psychiatrist and sexologist Richard von Kraft-Ebing , who also led a shelter for the insane, published his famous work Psychopathia sexualis , in which he distinguishes between innate and acquired forms of homosexuality and introduces them to the rank of sexual deviations and sexual perversions [9] .
In 1891, the psychiatrist and sexologist Albert Moll published the first monograph in German entirely devoted to homosexuality — his work Die Conträre Sexualempfindung . He considers homosexuality to be an innate property and ranks it as a painful perversion , and also speaks out against the criminal prosecution of homosexuals [12] .
Magnus Hirschfeld Science and Humanities Committee
The high-profile lawsuit against English poet Oscar Wald in London in 1895 on charges of having sex with Alfred Douglas , in which the poet was sentenced to two years in prison and forced labor, prompted the German physician and sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld to engage in decriminalization and public acceptance of same-sex contacts between men [12] .
May 15, 1897 the efforts of Magnus Hirschfeld, Max Spor , Edward Oberg and Franz-Josef von Bülow the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee was founded - the first organization in the world to defend the rights of homosexuals; One of the objectives of the Committee was to fight for the abolition of § 175 [12] [13] [14] . In 1902, the regional offices of the Committee appeared in Frankfurt am Main , Munich , Düsseldorf and Leipzig [15] .
In 1897, the Committee submits the first petition to the Reichstag with a request to cancel the prosecution of homosexual contacts [16] [17] . The petition was signed by more than 6 thousand scientists, politicians and artists [17] . In 1900, the Committee filed a second such petition [16] [18] . The third petition was filed in 1904, but it was rejected, and in 1907 it was filed again, but also had no success [19] [20] .
In 1899, the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee publishes the first scientific journal on sexology - the “Yearbook of Intermediate Sex Stages” ( German: Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen ), which was published over the next 23 years until 1923 [16] . The yearbook has become the most important platform for discussions about homosexuality; the journal regularly published the results of scientific research, historiographic articles and biographical essays [16] . In the works of Hirschfeld and his followers, the center of attention is the intermediate sexual position of homosexuals - a feminine homosexual man and a masculine homosexual woman [16] .
Created in 1903 by Adolf Brand ( Ger . Adolf Brand ), The Community of the Own (Ger . Gemeinschaft der Eigenen ), which is a closed society of subscribers to the Svoy magazine (and is Germany’s second gay organization after the Committee), rejected Hirschfeld’s ideas about femininity homosexual men as a stereotypical caricature and singing masculinity [19] . The first journal for homosexuals, Svoy ( Ger. “Der Eigene“ ) was founded by Brand in 1896 [12] .
In 1901, the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee publishes an article intended for the masses by Hirschfeld “What the people should know about the third field” ( German “Was muss das Volk vom Dritten Geschlecht wissen!” ) [15] . Since 1903, Hirschfeld has followed the example of such famous sexologists as Havelock Ellis and Paul Nacke and conducts studies designed to show the lack of a relationship between homosexuality and personality degeneration [15] .
In 1903, Hirschfeld conducts a mass survey of students, the purpose of which is to obtain statistical data on the number of homosexual and bisexual people in society. In a study, Hirschfeld concludes that 1.5% of the population is homosexual and 3.9% are bisexual [15] . One of the students, who received the Hirschfeld form by mail, files a lawsuit against him because of “insult” and “distribution of depraved literature”. The lawsuit against Hirschfeld was satisfied and the researcher was sentenced to a fine of 200 marks [15] .
A series of high-profile processes involving the Harden-Eulenburg case , which took place in 1907-1909 , significantly enhances anti-homosexual attitudes in society [21] [22] . Hirschfeld is appointed an expert in the case to establish the homosexuality of the participants. As a result of the fact that after one of the processes ends and already in the process of another, Hirschfeld suddenly abandons the conclusions of his previous expertise, confidence in him is lost and as a result, many members of the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee leave it and establish the Sezession organization (“ Secession ”) [ 23] . As a result of the contradictions that have arisen in the Committee, a crisis sets in [23] .
In 1908, Hirschfeld, together with the psychoanalyst Karl Abraham, conducted a formal study of a man, after which the man received official permission from the authorities to wear women's clothing [24] . In 1910, Hirschfeld introduced the term “transvestite” to refer to men and women who prefer to wear the opposite sex, despite the fact that most psychoanalysts (in particular, Isidore Zadger and Wilhelm Stekel ) continue to classify such people as homosexuals [25] .
In 1914, Hirschfeld published a monograph “Homosexuality of a man and a woman” ( German “Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes” ), which for the first time in history offers the concept of treating homosexuals in order to reconcile them with their sexuality, rather than to turn them into heterosexuals [25] .
Liberalization of the Weimar Republic
The emergence of human rights organizations
With the fall of the empire and the creation of the Weimar Republic (1918), freedoms of speech and assembly were guaranteed to all citizens. At this time, the flowering of the homosexual movement occurs and a large number of homosexual organizations appear [26] .
The first such "circles", whose task was to improve the social and social status of homosexuals, appeared in large cities as early as 1919 [26] . For example, the Berlin Friendship ( Berliner Freundschaftsbund ) was created in Berlin, the goal of which was to proclaim the struggle to improve the social, political and legal position of homosexuals [27] . In 1920, at its base, with the collaboration of homosexual organizations from Hamburg and Frankfurt am Main , the “German Friendship Association” ( German Deutscher Freundschaftverband ) was created, which is a focal point for various regional groups [28] . In 1921, the first congress of the “German Friendship Association” was held in Kassel , in which 8 regional organizations of homosexuals took part [26] [28] . In the following years until 1929, several similar meetings were also held [28] .
In 1922, the "German Friendship Association" was transformed into the "Union for Human Rights" ( German Bund für Menschenrecht ), which became the only mass organization of homosexuals at that time [29] [26] [30] . The first chairman of the Union was the publisher Friedrich Radtszuvayt ( it. Friedrich Radszuweit ) [31] [26] [30] . The organ of the organization was the Bulletin for Human Rights ( Blatt für Menschenrecht ) [32] . The main purpose of the Union was proclaimed the abolition of criminal prosecution and the fight against public prejudice against homosexuals. Despite the small number of active members involved in the struggle for political goals, in total in April 1924, the Union had 12,000 members [29] [30] . By 1929, the number of members increased to 48 thousand [29] [32] . At the same time, Adolf Brand’s “Community of Its Own” had no more than 2–3 thousand members [29] . Most of the local circles of the Union for Human Rights consisted of leisure meetings on interests and discussion of news [32] .
In 1923, the "Active Committee" ( German Aktionskomitee ) was founded by the Union for Human Rights, the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee and the Community of Their own to coordinate action [29] [33] [28] . The main task of the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee was to prepare the scientific ground for the abolition of paragraph 175 [34] [29] . At the same time, the Union for Human Rights took over all the necessary contacts with state institutions and conducting explanatory work with the public [34] . The task of "Their Community" was information propaganda through art [30] .
There were disagreements on various issues between the Union for Human Rights and the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee. While the Union only required the decriminalization of sexual contacts between adult men over 18 years of age, the Committee demanded a full legal equalization of homosexual and heterosexual contacts and a decrease in the age of consent to 16 years [35] . In addition, the Union strongly criticized feminized homosexuals and transvestites for their “repulsive appearance” and, as a result, the strengthening of homonegative attitudes in society; whereas in the Science and Humanities Committee, feminine men and transvestites were viewed as a natural manifestation of male homosexuality in accordance with Hirschfeld ’s theory of "intermediate sex steps" ( German sexuelle Zwischenstufen ) [35] [34] .
Scientific Studies of Homosexuality
In 1919, the Magnus Hirschfeld Institute in the Berlin district of Tiergarten founded the Institute of Sexual Sciences , closely cooperating with the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee , which moves to the Institute and forms in it the “Sexual Reform Department” [27] [36] . The Institute actively contacted homosexuals and transgender people in their research. In the Institute's studies, homosexuals were considered as representatives of the third sex along with men and women, therefore they should not be persecuted due to their certain innate quality [37] .
With the foundation of the Institute, Hirschfeld pursued the goal of deepening the research base on homosexuality with a view to abolishing the anti-homosexual § 175 , as well as considering general issues of human sexuality and promoting sexual reform [38] . In particular, the Institute held public evening of questions and answers on the topics of sexuality, family life, body hygiene, contraception , abortion, homosexuality, sexually transmitted infections and other issues [39] . Thus, the Institute was in many ways a practical and popular science continuation of the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee [39] .
Austrian physiologist Eugen Steinach in 1919, he came to the idea that the cause of homosexuality lies in the female ovary or male scrotum , in connection with which Steinach proposes their one-sided castration and “heterosexual” testicles to “homosexuals” for “homosexuals” [27] . Hirschfeld adopts this idea and sends some of his patients to such operations, but they do not lead to success, so in 1922 such operations cease [27] .
In 1919, director Richard Oswald, in collaboration with Dr. Hirschfeld, filmed the silent film “ Not Like All ” with Conrad Feidt in the lead role, a melodrama about same-sex love, blackmail and death. The purpose of the film was to educate people about homosexuality [40] [27] . The film was canceled by the police in Vienna , Munich and Stuttgart [41] . The filmmakers were accused of homosexual propaganda [27] . The Prussian Landtag rejected a proposal to ban the film on the territory of Prussia because the ban on the film would contradict the freedom of speech guaranteed by the Constitution of the Weimar Republic [41] . On April 25, 1920, the German parliament introduced censorship into the cinema. It is difficult to say whether the film “Not like everyone else” influenced this decision [41] . The attempt to remove the reworked version of the film in 1927 was unsuccessful due to the censorship law adopted [41] .
Since 1921, the Institute of Sexual Sciences has held international congresses on sexology , homosexuality and sexual reform [39] [28] . In the late 1920s and early 1930s, similar congresses of sexologists were held in several cities around the world. In 1928, the World League for Sexual Reforms was created to coordinate international congresses, with Auguste Trout (Switzerland) and Havelock Ellis (England) [42] [43] appointed as presidents along with Magnus Hirschfeld. The League’s practical tasks were to spread sexological knowledge with the aim of legalizing abortions, liberalizing family law and canceling the criminal prosecution of homosexuals [42] . The League held international congresses in Copenhagen (1928), London (1929), Vienna (1930) and Brno (1932) [43] .
As a result of hyperinflation in the country and the appearance of many magazines and newspapers for homosexuals in 1923, the publication of the Yearbook of Intermediate Sexual Steps, published by the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee , was discontinued [30] .
In 1929, another crisis arose within the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee caused by the discontent of the leadership, with the result that Hirschfeld left the post of chairman of the Committee. Otto Juliusburger, the former deputy of Hirschfeld ( him. Otto Juliusburger ) [44] [43], becomes the new head of the Committee. After Hirshfeld’s departure, the Committee’s course, which soon abandons the theory of “intermediate steps” and changes the relationship between male homosexuality and femininity, is changing [45] .
Development of homosexual subcultures
The publishing house of Friedrich Radszuwayt published a whole range of newspapers and magazines for homosexual men and women, some of which had a circulation of up to 100 thousand copies per month [26] . Only the Ostrov magazine ( Insel ) by 1930 reached a circulation of 150,000 copies [46] [30] . The press for homosexuals was freely available on the newsstands of major cities [32] . Radtszuvayt opens in Berlin a bookstore for homosexuals, in which it was possible to purchase not only fiction, newspapers and magazines, but also erotic photographs [30] . Since 1924, a lesbian magazine, “Podruga” ( Die Freundin ), has been published by Radszuwait, which also hosts a small block for transvestites [47] .
In 1925, one of the issues of the magazine “Svoy” was published under another name “Aunt” ( it. Tante ). The issue is fully devoted to the criticism of the Hirshfeld theory of male homosexuality and the position of the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee , feminizing homosexual men [47] .
A large number of magazines for homosexuals also published fiction on homosexual themes [48] . With the increase in the number of comingings in society, many authors, including well-known, are beginning to turn to the topic of homosexuality in their works [48] . Already in 1913, Thomas Mann publishes his novel “ Death in Venice ”, in which he describes his own homosexual experiences [49] . In a number of works by his son Klaus Mann, homosexual experiences occupied a central place - (1926), (1929) and (1932), published by S. Fischer Verlag [49] .
A great success was published in 1919, the novel by Russian emigrant Elena Nagrodskaya “The Bronze Door” ( it. Die bronze Tür ), telling about the problems of equality of same-sex love. The novel endured five reprints and was filmed in 1928 by the Viennese director Hans Effenberger ( it. Hans Effenberger ) [48] . Stefan Zweig also addresses the topic of homosexuality in his novel The Confusion of Feelings [49] .
Almost every major city had bars and eateries for the homosexual public [48] . Across the country from Königsberg to Cologne, from Flensburg to Munich, various entertainment events, parties and balls organized for homosexuals were held [50] .
The decline of the homosexual movement in the Nazi period
Sexual minorities did not fit into the Nazi ideology of the pure " Aryan race ", according to which any manifestation of sexuality that goes beyond the "Aryan marriage" was considered dirty and dangerous [51] . The tightening of the persecution of homosexual men in Nazi Germany and the subsequent striving to conduct castration over all convicts is associated with the Nazi ideology of racial hygiene and attempts to protect the " Aryan race " from the "infectious degenerating influence of homosexuality" [52] [53] .
From the very first months after his coming to power by the Nazis, several decrees were issued to shut down “immoral” ( him unsittlich ) institutions serving as “meeting places” for people “indulging in unnatural depravity” and prostitution that was outlawed. According to this law, most cafes and bars, known as meeting places for homosexuals, are closed [51] [54] [55] .
The majority, according to the Nazis, of “dirty magazines” ( German “Schmutzschriften” ), including various informational and artistic publications for homosexuals [55], also closes. Among the banned publications are such magazines as Blätter für Menschenrecht , Die Insel , Der Kreis and others [56] . By March 1933, all remaining LGBT journals will be closed [55] . Nevertheless, the magazine Der Kreis published in neutral Switzerland until 1951 remained the only German-language publication covering the life of homosexuals in Germany [57] .
In January 1933, a non-replaceable secretary of the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee died of pneumonia [55] . After some time, the Committee itself, which has been fighting for the abolition of paragraph 175 since 1897, completes its work and is dissolved [55] [58] . On May 6, 1933, the Nazis destroyed the Institute for the Sexual Sciences in Berlin created by Hirschfeld [58] [59] . In the same year, all organizations of homosexuals in the country cease to operate [59] . Hirschfeld himself leaves the country and dies in 1935 in Nice (Italy) [59] .
The decree of June 26, 1935 adopted amendments and additions to the law “ On the prevention of the birth of offspring with hereditary diseases ”, according to which castration was allowed “for one’s own will” for homosexual men, either already convicted under § 175, or already served, there is a risk of recurrence [60] [53] [61] .
Tightening the prosecution of homosexual men
September 1, 1935 entered into force a more rigid, amended version of § 175 . Now, apart from “unnatural adultery between males or a person with animals,” he covered a wide range of “indecent harassment” and “obscene” behavior of men. According to the new German law, not only mutual masturbation became punishable by imprisonment, but even attempts at flirting — touches or looks [62] [63] [64] [65] [61] .
Between 1933 and 1944, according to § 175, from 50 to 100 thousand men were convicted in the Third Reich , among them about four thousand adolescents [66] [67] .
For the systematic registration and control of homosexual men, on October 10, 1936, Himmler’s secret decree established the Central Imperial Bureau against Homosexuality and Abortions under the control of the Gestapo [68] [69] . Combining the two “crimes” also testifies to the state control of human sexuality [69] .
In 1937, the next tightening of the law “On dangerous recidivists” followed. Now any prisoner who served the slightest misdemeanor or if he had a “criminal inclination” and the likelihood of his “re-committing a crime” could at any moment with the aim of “correcting” and “recovering” be sent to an concentration camp for an indefinite period. Thus, any homosexual man once found and imprisoned could have been deported to a concentration camp at any time [70] .
Early postwar years in Allied-occupied Germany
In May 1945, with the end of the war, most prisoners in prison and all concentration camp prisoners were liberated by Allied troops [57] . As early as 1945, the first gay bars were reopened on the ruins of Berlin, despite the continuing official action of § 175 in its toughened Nazi version [57] .
In 1946, the Control Council of occupied Germany proposed to repeal unlawful Nazi legislation and bring the criminal code to pre-war Kaiser time or to the version of the Weimar Republic . Moreover, the decision on whether paragraphs 175 and 175a were Nazi ideologically colored was completely transferred to the governments of the federal states [57] .
In the Soviet zone of occupation of Germany, even before the formation of the GDR, the courts had already wondered about the legality of the further use of paragraphs 175 and 175a in the Nazi version [71] . Already in 1945, the governments of Thuringia and Saxony-Anhalt rejected § 175 as amended in 1935 [72] .
The Dresden psychiatrist Rudolf Klimmer ( Rudolf Klimmer ) in 1947 openly advocated the abolition of § 175 and the softening of § 175a. His proposals were rejected by the government, which considered that the state faces far more important problems than the solution of such a petty issue [72] . In 1948, Curt Gröbel , a member of the Saxon Landtag ( German Curt Gröbel ), sent a resolution to all Landtags of the country, all parties and municipal governments to call for the abolition of § 175 [72] .
In the Soviet zone of occupation in 1948, former homosexual prisoners unsuccessfully tried to achieve official recognition as victims of Nazism. Moreover, former prisoners with a “ pink triangle ” are denied membership in the “Union of Persecuted Victims of Nazism” ( German: Vereinigung der Verfolgten des Naziregimes ) [72] .
Development in West Germany
Revival of the homosexual movement in the first post-war decade in Germany
The consequences of the national-socialist ideology made themselves felt for a long time after the end of the war. Paragraph 175 inherited from Nazi Germany continued to operate in the Federal Republic of Germany in its Nazi version until 1969 without changes [73] . All attempts to appeal the law in court in various instances were rejected, and the courts did not find signs of the national-socialist ideology and the ideology of " racial hygiene " in the Nazi version of § 175 [74] [75] .
The situation of homosexuals in West Germany remained incomprehensible. On the one hand, the new Constitution guaranteed them the freedom of assembly, association, press and speech, on the other hand, it was often dangerous to use these rights [76] . The Cold War also made its mark on the attitude to homosexuality in Germany. Homosexuals were often called “agents of Moscow,” and East Germany was accused of tolerance for homosexual relationships [77] . Such a political climate did not contribute to the revival of the German movement for the rights of sexual minorities. Despite this, the first post-war homosexual organizations appeared in Bremen , Hanover , Frankfurt am Main and West Berlin in the 1950s [78] . The first such organization was established in August 1949 in Frankfurt, the Association for a Humane Attitude to Life ( German: Verein für humanitäre Lebenshaltung ), which provides social, political, and legal support for homosexuals [79] . Together with the Bremen International Friendship Lodge ( German Internationale Freundschaftsloge ), established in September 1951 [80] , these two organizations became the most politically active homosexual organizations in West Germany in the 1950s [78] .
Already in 1949, an attempt was made to revive the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee , but the registration of the Committee was denied, since its main goal was to fight for the abolition of § 175 [81] . The first opportunity in the post-war time to talk about homosexuality at the scientific level appeared with the creation on April 12, 1950 of the German Sexological Society [81] [80] . In 1953, the Federal Republic of Germany joined the European Convention on Human Rights , but in 1956 it was declared that criminal prosecution of homosexuals does not contradict the Convention, since it serves to protect health and morals [82] .
In the 1950s, about 25 homosexual magazines were re-organized in the FRG, although many of them were published only for a short time; some journals adopted the names of pre-war years - Die Insel , Die Freundschaft, and others [83] . At the same time, many publications were censored or banned for distribution. For example, in the 1950s, the publisher of the gay magazine Freond was convicted of “distributing depraved materials” for one thousand marks or two months in prison because of the publication of men's swimwear in one issue of the magazine. At the same time, similar photos in those years were freely placed in the magazine for bodybuilders [76] . In 1955 a law was passed on the protection of children and young people prohibiting the public sale of homosexual magazines [84] [14] .
In 1957, director Veit Harlan shoots the first post-war film about homosexuality. However, his tape "Not like you and me" , created with the assistance of sexologist Hans Giza , fails much and is boycotted , including by homosexuals themselves [85] . In 1958, Rudolf Klimmer ( him. Rudolf Klimmer ) in Hamburg publishes the book Homosexuality ( him. Die Homosexualität ), which received positive reviews in the homosexual movement [86] . In 1959, Hans Giza himself publishes the book Homosexual Man in the World ( him: Der homosexuelle Mann in der Welt ), in which he divides homosexual men into "capable of creating a union" ( him bindungsfähig ) and incapable of him. Around this book there are heated debates within the homosexual movement [86] .
Period of stagnation at the turn of the 1950s / 60s
The Constitutional Court of Germany, in its decision of 10 May 1957, did not find signs of a national-socialist ideology in the Nazi version of § 175 and confirmed that this paragraph “does not contradict the ideas of a free democratic state” [73] [85] . The court also indicated that the application of par. 2 of Article 3 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany (on equality between men and women) does not apply to homosexuality [87] .
In the same year, 1957, a series of lawsuits on anti-homosexual paragraphs started in the country, which began with a high-profile trial in Frankfurt am Main. As a result, it becomes risky to be replaced in the homosexual movement and the activity of homosexual organizations drops noticeably [88] .
The 1960s in the Federal Republic of Germany were marked by a sharp drop in the activity of the homosexual movement against the background of the increased prosecution of men for homosexual contact [89] . During these years, almost all homosexual magazines ceased to be published [89] . By 1968, there is not one interregional homosexual organization left in the country and only two magazines for homosexuals are published - Der Weg and Amigo [90] . At the same time, the topic of homosexuality is gradually being brought to the public. Articles about homosexuality appear in the press, including in such major magazines as Der Spiegel and Quick , on television and radio programs and discussions appear that touch on homosexuality [89] . In 1962, Kurt Hiller made another attempt to recreate the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee in Hamburg [89] .
In 1963, a heated public debate ensued after a man voluntarily castrated in Hamburg for a man convicted of “heavy fornication between men” for “liberation from unnatural sex traction” on the basis of the law “On the Prevention of Genetic Diseases” adopted in 1935 by the Nazis " [91] .
Liberalization of legislation and the homophilic movement of the second half of the 1960s
As early as 1966, the FDPG advocated the complete abolition of § 175 , and in 1967, Justice Minister Gustav Heinemann ( SPD ) openly supported the decriminalization of homosexual contacts [91] . Corresponding changes to the criminal legislation of the Federal Republic of Germany were adopted in June 1969 under the rule of the coalition of Christian Democrats and Social Democrats [92] . At the same time, voluntary sexual contacts between men who have reached the age of 21 are no longer criminalized [93] [92] . Thus, the age of sexual consent for homosexual contacts between men was set at around 21 years old, while the age of consent for sexes of different sex was 18 years [92] .
Voluntary homosexual contacts of men with persons under the age of 21, coercion to same-sex contact using dependent status and male homosexual prostitution , according to the new edition of the Criminal Code, were punished, as before, with a prison term of up to 5 years [94] .
Already in June 1973, the German government adopted a new wording of § 175 , in which the age of sexual consent for sexual contacts between men was reduced from 21 years to 18 years [95] . The law came into force in November [93] . Meanwhile, the age of consent for heterosexual contact was 16 years [95] . The constitutional court of the Federal Republic of Germany in the same year confirmed the constitutionality of various age limits for homosexual and heterosexual contacts [95] .
The abolition of criminal responsibility for voluntary sexual contacts between adult men in September 1969 actually made official LGBT activities possible. As a result, in many cities, new “ homophilic ” organizations began to emerge, focusing in their activity on the organizations of the 1950s. Among the newly emerged organizations are the International Homophile Organization ( him. Internationale Homophile Weltorganization ) and the Union for the Interests of Homophiles of Germany ( him. Interessengemeinschaft Homophiler Deutschlands ) [96] .
The result of the decriminalization of same-sex relationships was a sharp increase in the homosexual subculture , manifested in the emergence of a huge number of bars, cafes, discos, clubs and saunas for homosexuals [97] .
A generational change and a new stage of open struggle in the 1970s
The beginning of the 1970s was marked by a change of generations and a paradigm shift in the homosexual movement of West Germany. The closed secret societies of conservative or liberal persuasion gradually gave way to youth and student left - oriented organizations. If the goal of early homosexual organizations was to stop the discrimination of homosexuals, the goal of the new youth movement was social changes in society and the elimination of sex-role fixation [98] . The formation of a new youth movement was accompanied by the formation of a new identity — the new groups rejected the use of the words “homophile” and began to actively use the word “schwul” that was formerly abusive [99] for self-designation [98] [100] .
The ideas of gay emancipation are developed in the early 1970s among the youth of large cities, primarily among students and young professionals with higher education. At this time, many homosexual organizations arise (for example, the organization Homosexuelle Aktion Westberlin ), which attempt to describe the theoretical concepts of homosexual emancipation [101] . Most of these organizations in their political views [101] .
Initially, the new homosexual groups united both gays and lesbians, but very soon, especially with the design of the West German feminist movement , the homosexual movement was split on the basis of sex and the lesbian movement, similar in spirit to the ideas of feminism, emerged [102] [103] . Such splitting existed until the 1990s [103] .
In June 1971, in West Germany, due to the widespread coverage in the homosexual press, it became known about the Stonewall riots in the US in 1969 [102] . In 1973, the legislation on pornography was liberalized in Germany, which resulted in the emergence of erotic and pornographic homosexual magazines [96] .
"Not homosexual perverted, but the situation in which he lives"
July 4, 1971 at the XXI Berlin Film Festival as part of the Young Filmmakers ' Forum, the premiere of Rosa von Praunheim 's film “ Not a homosexual is perverted, but the situation in which he lives ” [102] [99] . The screening of the film in cinemas evoked heated discussions, in which the authors of the film themselves often took part [96] [102] . As a result of such discussions, several initiative groups were formed in various cities of the country [96] [99] . These include the Homosexuelle Aktion Westberlin (HAW) in Berlin, the Rote Zelle Schwul in Frankfurt , the Homosexuelle Aktionsgruppe Saarbrücken in the Saar , the Gay Liberation Front in Cologne, the Homosexuelle Aktionsgruppe in Munich [102] .
The screening of the film on West German television on January 31, 1972 on the regional WDR channel in Cologne caused so much scandal and resonance in German society that the planned all-German broadcast on the First Central Channel ARD was canceled in order to protect homosexuals themselves. After the film was shown on television, the television company's telephones were cut off by hundreds of calls, more than 95% of which were negative [104] [105] .
The re-run of the film provoked the creation of a feminist feminist bloc HAW , the purpose of which was to de-embrace lesbianism and overcome the isolation and loneliness of lesbians in society .
Nevertheless, a year later, on January 15, 1973, the film was shown on the First Central Channel in a late evening broadcast at 10:45 pm [106] . In this case, Bavaria blocked the screening of this film on its territory [106] [107] .
The push that made the film was no longer possible to stop. German film critic Dietrich Kulbrodt ( Dietrich Kuhlbrodt ) compares the value of showing this film on German television with the Stonewall riots in the United States [108] .
First demonstrations and rallies of homosexuals
In May 1972, the first all-German demonstration of homosexuals took place in Münster , which brought together representatives of all homosexual organizations in the country [102] . In the same year in West Berlin, during a May Day march, about two hundred open homosexuals organized their own convoy, calling on other West German homosexuals to declare themselves [101] .
In May 1972, the members of HAW organized the first "Meetings for the Trinity, " which later became annual. At these meetings, the further strategy for the development of the homosexual movement in Germany was discussed. As part of the meeting, a delegation from West Berlin also visited East Berlin , where they met with East German homosexuals to exchange experiences [102] .
Tuntenstreit
In 1973, during the regular “Meetings for the Trinity” in West Berlin , organized annually by HAW , a demonstration was held, in which men dressed in women's dresses took part. Such a show was negatively perceived by many homosexual groups, which led to serious conflicts within the LGBT movement [95] . This crisis among historians has received the name "Tuntenstreit" ( German. Tuntenstreit , from it. Tunte - "feminine, mannered homosexual with defiant behavior" and him. Streit - "dispute"). The conflict resulted in a split of HAW into two wings: inclusionists (who advocated changing society through integration) and radicals (advocating changing society through overcoming patriarchy ) [95] .
Inclusionists, mostly representatives of Marxist ideology , explained the reason for social negativism towards homosexuals by remnants of the pre-capitalist system, unworthy of modern society. In their opinion, social integration of homosexuals into society was possible at any moment, therefore the most important task at the moment was to develop active solidarity towards sexual minorities within the labor movement , as well as to strengthen self-awareness among homosexuals about their position as an employed labor force. .
In contrast, the radical faction rejected the policy of minorities, which would mean the recognition of heterosexuality by the dominant majority. Such a position, in their opinion, contributes to the heteronormative distribution of sex roles in society, heterosexuality and latent homosexuality among men. From this point of view, the radicals demanded the development of an autonomous LGBT movement, which would not be led by a heterosexual society, but would defend its own positions .
Growth in the number of LGBT organizations
In 1974, the AHA-Berlin organization was formed in West Berlin [109] . In total, by 1974 there were about 45 homosexual organizations in the Federal Republic of Germany [109] . By May 1975, about 35 local and supra-regional publications for homosexuals were published [109] . In 1975, the AHA-Berlin organization launched its first action, The Pink Triangle , recalling the persecution of homosexuals by the Nazi regime [109] .
In 1974, sexologists Martin Dannecker and Raymut Reiche they publish the results of their empirical research, the work Homosexual Ordinary ( German Der gewöhnliche Homosexuelle ), in which they try to describe the socio-psychological situation of homosexuals [109] .
In 1975, Verlag rosa Winkel founded in West Berlin focused on the publication of journalism and fiction on homosexual themes. Later, other similar publishers appear - Albino , Bruno Gmünder , Förster , MännerschwarmScript and others [110] . The Munich "Union for Sexual Equality" ( German Verein für sexuelle Gleichberechtigung ) in 1975 sought the laying of wreaths to the homosexual victims of Nazism in the Dachau concentration camp [110] .
Since 1976, all kinds of gay projects, gay centers and gay cafes are starting to appear everywhere in the country. In total by this time there are about 60 different groups [110] . In 1976 in Düsseldorf, for the first time in Germany, courses on homosexuality were held in one of the evening schools [110] . In June 1977, the ecumenical group “Homosexuals and the Church” ( German: Homosexuelle und Kirche, HuK ) [110] was created . Due to political controversy in 1977, HAW ceases active political activity and focuses its work only on managing the SchwuZ gay center in West Berlin [111] . In April 1978, the Rosa Hilfe Homosexuals Consultation Center appeared in Hamburg, and similar centers later appeared in other cities [111] .
In June 1979, the first pride parades in the history of Germany were held in Bremen, West Berlin and Stuttgart [111] . The events were called Christopher Street Day (CSD) in honor of the Stonewall uprisings on Christopher Street in the United States. In the same year, the first LGBT Homolulu meetings were held in Frankfurt am Main, representing a mix of politics and entertainment [111] [112] .
In 1981, a psychologist from Hamburg, Thomas Grossman ( him. Thomas Grossmann ) published his book "Gay - and what?" ( German. Schwul - na und? ) - the first collection of tips on coming out for gays. In the same year a similar book for lesbians was released - “The Book of Lesbian Sexuality” ( it’s Sapphistrie: Das Buch der lesbischen Sexualität ) - translated by the American author Patrick Califia ( Eng. Patrick Califia ). In 1989, Bea Trampenau’s book Bea Trampenau, No Place for a Lesbian Girl, caught the public’s attention.
Prior to the beginning of the 1980s, in several cities (in particular, in Ingolstadt , Ulm and Aachen ), city authorities denied LGBT organizations to place information booths because of their “threat” to the population. In 1975, the Supreme Administrative Court in Münster ruled that Article 5 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany does not apply to LGBT organizations and upheld the ban on the Aachen city administration [113] .
Depoliticization of the LGBT movement and the fight against AIDS in the 1980s
By the beginning of the 1980s, another change of generations of LGBT activists took place in the Federal Republic of Germany. The ideology of the new generation has moved away from the politicization inherent in the movement of the 1970s [114] . In the 1980s, the tendency towards the creation of professional LGBT groups within large organizations, which had emerged since 1978, developed. Thus, separate LGBT groups emerged among the medical community, lawyers and teachers, in the trade unions of transport workers, educators, and government officials [115] . LGBT groups also appeared within political parties [115] . Thus, the group “ Gays and lesbians in the Social Democratic Party of Germany ” (officially recognized only in 1983); the Homosexuality working group in the Free Democratic Party (founded in 1978, officially recognized in 1981); working LGBT group within the Green Party and many others . By December 1980, there were 148 LGBT groups in the Federal Republic of Germany, 18 of them in West Berlin [115] . By 1981, 38 LGBT-related newspapers and magazines were published in the country [114] .
The development of the West German LGBT movement in the 1980s was of great importance for the AIDS epidemic that shook the whole world [116] . The problem of HIV / AIDS has become the central theme of the entire LGBT movement in these years, putting all other tasks in the background. In addition, in the early years, a large number of LGBT activists died from the disease, about which then almost nothing was known [112] . In 1983-1985, the problem of AIDS was increasingly addressed in public discussions, reinforcing prejudices towards homosexuals [117] . An open discussion of AIDS and its prevention has caused an unprecedented widespread discussion of homosexual behavior [118] . The private television that has emerged since 1984 has been actively speculating on scandalous topics [112] . Against the background of a heightened public interest in homosexuality, the question of discrimination of homosexuals and violence against them again came up. Across the country began to create hotlines for homosexuals [119] .
Among politicians, there are two points of view on the problem of HIV / AIDS. On the one hand, the Bavarian Interior Minister Peter Gowayler proposed to fight the “homosexual subculture” and isolate AIDS patients in special camps [117] . On the other hand, the Minister of Health Rita Zusmut insisted on improving educational projects and prevention [117] . Subsequently, the second point of view received government support and funding [120] . Counseling centers on HIV / AIDS began to emerge in the country, which were primarily organized by homosexual men [121] . Since 1986, local centers have been united under the roof of the federal organization Deutsche AIDS-Hilfe [116] . As a result of successful public policy, by the end of the 1980s, the topic of HIV / AIDS ceases to be discussed in the general public and leaves the agenda of LGBT organizations [120] .
With the support of the SPD, in 1982, the ruling party of the SDPG again raised the issue of abolishing § 175 , but after the Social Democrats were ousted from the coalition by the CDU , the issue disappeared from the agenda again [114] . In 1983, a scandal broke out in connection with the dismissal of Defense Minister Wörner ( him. Wörner ) by General Kiesling ( him. Kießling ) in connection with the publication of his homosexuality [122] .
Since 1984, the West German LGBT movement has largely focused on the United States and the Netherlands, following the example of which numerous leisure LGBT groups have emerged in the country, for example, sports clubs, gay choirs, tourist groups [122] . In 1984, in West Berlin, an exhibition about the life of German homosexuals was organized by a group of gays and lesbians, which later grew into the Berlin Museum of Homosexuality [122] . In 1986, the Federal Homosexual Union ( German Bundesverband Homosexualität, BVH ) was created as the parent organization for local LGBT groups [123] . Local LGBT projects continue to develop in the country, the number of which by 1986 has already increased to 416 [124] .
Despite the many successes that LGBT activists achieved during these years, especially in the area of HIV prevention, in the late 1980s, the German LGBT movement fell into a state of stagnation, which most of the country's social movements experienced during these years. Many LGBT activists withdrew from active work, disillusioned with it. There are several reasons for this:
- Political activity among gay people gradually began to be considered “non-sexual”; in the gay slang of that time, the offensive term “political sister” ( German Politschwester ) even appeared to refer to gay activists.
- Due to the gradually growing acceptance of homosexuality by society, many LGBT activists saw the task of the LGBT movement as complete.
- Many former ideological magazines of the LGBT movement were gradually commercialized and turned into glossy magazines, dissociating themselves from the LGBT movement.
- The LGBT movement has become more “professional” and, through the multi-level system of LGBT organizations, has virtually eliminated the possibility of the participation of ordinary people.
Rehabilitation of homosexual victims of Nazism
The government of Germany for a long time did not recognize homosexual men as victims of repression of the Third Reich. Thus, the Law on Compensation of Damage to Persons Convicted under National Socialism ( German Bundesentschädigungsgesetz ), published in October 1957 and entered into law in January 1958, did not consider those convicted under § 175 and § 175a to be victims of Nazism [125] [86] . The first official recognition by the German government of homosexuals as victims of repression occurred in May 1985, when a memorial to gay prisoners was opened on the territory of the former concentration camp Neuengamme [93] . Then the President of Germany Richard von Weizsäcker became the first official official in the history of the country to recognize homosexuals as victims of Nazism in an open statement [93] .
Development in East Germany
Invisible existence despite legislation liberalization
Homosexuality in the socialist GDR was considered a “relic of capitalism ” [126] [127] . In order to combat the "promotion of homosexuality," the government tried to prevent the existence of clubs, bars, magazines and newspapers for homosexuals [128] . Thus, the homosexual movement in the GDR remained invisible for a long time. Gay bars that exist in such large cities as East Berlin , Dresden , Leipzig and Magdeburg were constantly threatened with closure, the release and sale of homosexual magazines were prohibited, and the creation of homosexual organizations was refused [78] [127] .
In March 1950, the Supreme Court of the GDR decided that, according to paragraph 175, only homosexual contacts with penetration were prosecuted [71] . In fact, this meant a return to the practice that took place in the Weimar Republic . At the same time, § 175a (seduction using threats or dependent status, seduction of persons under 21 and prostitution) remained unchanged in the Nazi version [129] [80] . The consequence of this policy was that since the formation of the GDR, the number of men convicted under “homosexual paragraphs” has significantly decreased [71] .
With the erection of the Berlin Wall (1961) and the closure of borders, the isolation of East German homosexuals increases - they lose access to West German bars and clubs, magazines and newspapers for homosexuals [130] . Due to the lack of their authorized organizations, bars and clubs, East German homosexuals are forced to assemble in apartments and public places. In large cities, however, cafes and bars for homosexuals arise illegally, which are closed by the government, and then appear elsewhere and exist until the next discovery and closure [89] .
In 1963, the first scientific monograph on homosexuality, Homosexuality in Men ( German: Die Homosexualität beim Mann ) by Czech sexologist Kurt Freund, was published in the GDR [91] . In his monograph, Freund tries to refute Magnus Hirschfeld 's ideas about the innateness of homosexuality, proposes to treat homosexuality in men with psychotherapeutic methods and opposes the criminalization of homosexual contacts [91] . The book receives positive feedback from the East German scientific community [91] .
Proposed in 1968 by the Minister of Justice of the GDR Hilda Benjamin The draft of the new GDR Penal Code has aroused extensive discussions in the government. Among other things, the project provided for the unconditional abolition of punishment for voluntary homosexual contact [91] . With all this, government discussions regarding anti-homosexual legislation do not get into the press [92] . The new GDR Penal Code approved by the People’s Chamber , in which same-sex sexual contacts between men over 18 are no longer criminalized, takes effect on July 1, 1968 [129] [92] . Thus, § 151 of the new GDR Penal Code established the age of sexual consent for same-sex contacts (both between two men and between two women) at around 18 years old, while the age of consent for opposite-sex contacts was 16 years [92] .
However, despite the decriminalization of adult homosexual relations, the government continues to implement a total ban on the creation and activities of homosexual organizations, newspapers and magazines [92] [129] . Despite the repeal of anti-homosexual legislation in the GDR, until the 1970s, homosexuals in the country did not enter the political arena, and homosexuality remained taboo in society [129] .
In scientific circles in the GDR, the pathologizing view on homosexuality also continued to dominate [92] . East Berliner endocrinologist Gunter Dörner in 1969, he hypothesized the hormonal causes of homosexuality in the fetus during pregnancy [92] .
Subculture and LGBT movement development
Revitalized by West German activists
In May 1972, members of the West Berlin organization Homosexuelle Aktion Westberlin, as part of their annual meetings on the Trinity, visited East Berlin, where they met with East German homosexuals to share experiences [102] . In January 1973, under the influence of the Rosa von Praunheim film “ Not a homosexual is perverted, but the situation in which he lives ” (West Germany, 1971), the group “Berlin Homosexualle Interessengemeinschaft Berlin ” was created in East Berlin, which was the only homosexual group in the GDR in the 1970s [95] .
In 1973, the World Festival of Youth and Students was held in Berlin. At this time, members of the Berlin Homosexual Community of Interest held their first public action, during which they handed out leaflets. East German activists also attempted to organize discussions with British guests, but the Ministry of State Security of the GDR and the organizers of the festival disrupted the designated events [95] .
In May 1975, the Berlin Homosexual Interests Society, following the example of its colleagues from Germany, organized its Trinity Meetings, to which gay activists from other cities of the GDR were invited to create homosexual groups in the regions [109] . In 1976, the company repeatedly attempted to state the registration of a contact center for homosexuals, but all applications were rejected by the government for various reasons [110] . In September 1979, the company ceases to operate due to numerous failures [111] .
The emergence of homosexual groups under the roof of the church
Since the end of the 1970s, under the roof of the Evangelical Church, in various places, civil groups have emerged that show oppositional attitudes towards state policy [131] . In 1981, the Gospel Academy held a public forum on homosexuality, in which church leaders, scholars and homosexuals take part. The forum was the first public event in the GDR on this topic [114] . In 1982, the Working Group on Homosexuality group ( Arbeitskreis Homosexualität ) was created under the roof of an evangelical student group in Leipzig , which becomes an example for other LGBT groups created under the roof of the Evangelical Church [114] . Since 1983, the Leipzig group has been presenting itself at the annual "Days of the Church" [122] . However, not all land churches support such initiatives; for example, the Evangelical Church of Thuringia takes an unshakable opposing position [114] . In addition, LGBT groups are subject to constant monitoring by the Ministry of State Security [114] . Since 1983, members of established LGBT groups began to lay wreaths at the walls of Buchenwald in memory of the homosexual victims of Nazism, which caused protests from the government [122] . In 1984-1989, similar LGBT groups under the roof of the church began to emerge in Halle , Magdeburg , Karl-Marx-Stadt , Rostock , Weimar , Erfurt , East Berlin , Aschersleben , Halberstadt and other cities of the GDR. By 1989, there were 17 such groups [122] . It is worth noting that, unlike the West German LGBT movement, East German gays and lesbians worked together, only East Berlin feminists-lesbians created their own separate group [122] . Since 1984, “church” LGBT groups have held coordination meetings [132] .
“Berlin homosexual society by interests” separated itself from “church gays”. In Dresden, Weimar, Magdeburg and Leipzig, LGBT groups were also organized that were not related to the church. In the second half of the 1980s, tensions arise between the two camps (“church gays” and “party gays”), which is linked to the difference of goals and strategies [123] .
Complete abolition of the “homosexual paragraph”
In December 1988, § 151 of the Criminal Code of the GDR was completely repealed, and it was prescribed for homosexual contacts to use the same legal norms as for heterosexual [133] [124] [134] . The age of sexual consent for homosexual and heterosexual contacts was equal and amounted to 14 years [120] . Sexual contact with adolescents 14-16 years old (same-sex and opposite-sex) remained criminal only in cases where the adolescent’s lack of “puberty” was used, in accordance with § 149 of the Criminal Code of the GDR. Thus, same-sex contacts are no longer mentioned in the country's Criminal Code [124] .
Despite the liberalization of legislation, the state, like in neighboring Germany, did not recognize those convicted in the Third Reich under § 175 as victims of repression [129] . In addition, the homosexual community was still limited in freedom of assembly and freedom of expression . In this connection, right up to the beginning of the 1990s, there were practically no LGBT organizations or specialized print media in the GDR [135] .
Public debate about homosexuality
In 1985, East German sexologists organized a conference on the “Psychosocial Aspects of Homosexuality”, held in Leipzig. Subsequent conferences were also held in 1988 and 1990 [123] . Since 1985, the print media, radio and television are beginning to speak openly about homosexuality [123] . In the same 1985, a working group was created by scientists from the East- Berlin University named after Humboldt to develop recommendations for communicating with homosexuals [123] . In contrast to the FRG in the GDR, the problem of AIDS is hushed up; for the first time, the topic was raised in 1987 at the coordination meeting of “church” LGBT groups [124] .
In July 1987, publishing a book by East Berlin psychologist Rainer Werner ( German: Rainer Werner ) published by People and Health Publishing House ( German: Verlag Volk und Gesundheit ) Homosexuality is a challenge to science and tolerance ( German: Homosexualität - Herausforderung an Wissen und Toleranz ) , the first edition of which was 50 thousand copies and was sold out in three weeks [136] . In an interview with the Zurich newspaper Tages-Anzeiger Werner noted that the promiscuity among homosexuals is “the result of more than a thousand years of playing hide and seek” and demanded equal rights of homosexual and heterosexual couples when renting housing [136] . Werner urged to abandon the Western path of ghettoization of homosexuals and to go the way of integrating homosexuals into society [137] [124] .
For the first time in the history of East German television, the topic of homosexuality was touched upon in the fall of 1987 in the health magazine Visite . The main idea of the program was the statement that homosexual men and women are no different from heterosexual except for their attraction to their sex [137] . The telecast also wondered about the development of homosexuality and encouraged parents to support their gay son or lesbian daughter if they came out [138] . On the day of the fall of the Berlin Wall, on November 9, 1989, the premiere of the first East German film on the homosexual theme " Cuming-out " was held [139] .
In the last year of the existence of the GDR in February 1990, the Gay GDR Union ( German: Schwulenverband in der DDR ) was created in the country, which later after the unification of Germany will be renamed to the German Gay Union ( German: Schwulenverband in Deutschland ) . In the same year, the Aids-Hilfe DDR group is involved in the field of HIV / AIDS prevention, and the first legal magazine for LGBT people, Courage , starts to be published, which later becomes the new name “Underworld” ( German Die andere Welt ) [140] . As a result of the incorporation of the GDR into the Federal Republic of Germany, the general political activity of the population increases, as a result of which more than 40 different LGBT organizations emerge in East Germany in 1990, including outside large cities [141] .
The current stage of LGBT activism in a united Germany
Final cancellation § 175
With the entry of the GDR into the Federal Republic of Germany in November 1990, the Criminal Code of the Federal Republic of Germany enters into force on the territory of the “ new lands ”, and with it § 175 [141] .
Since 1991, new lands began to develop their land constitution. Some of them, for example, Berlin (article 10), Brandenburg (article 12), Thuringia (article 2) have included the concept of “ sexual identity ” among the non-discriminatory personality characteristics [135] .
As early as 1980, the Free Democratic Party proposed the complete abolition of § 175 , being opposed by a bloc of Christian Democrats [142] . The Green Party and the German Communist Party also supported the complete abolition of the law [129] . By that time, § 175 only provided for punishment for same-sex sex with persons under the age of 18 [143] [93] .
In May 1994, the Bundestag under the rule of the coalition of Christian and free democrats with the support of the Social Democratic Party , the Party of Democratic Socialism and the Green Party finally canceled § 175 in the territory of united Germany [144] . The relevant law came into force on June 11, 1994 [145] [146] . At the same time, the age of sexual consent for homosexual and heterosexual relationships was equalized at around 14 or 16 years. (A raised bar at 16 is applied if the adult partner performs an educative, educational or custodial function for a minor) .
Combining Eastern and Western LGBT Movements
After the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, there is a gradual merger of two independent LGBT movements, east and west. Practically, the newly created “Union of gays of the GDR” is renamed the “ Union of Gays of Germany ” (SVD) and is gaining strength, luring away many members of the West German “Federal Homosexual Union” (BVH). At the same time, the unification of lesbian and gay subcultures begins and a single LGBT community is formed , for which the English word Community begins to be used in German .
Since the late 1980s, among LGBT activists, the issue of discrimination of homosexuals due to the inaccessibility of the institution of marriage has been raised. It is worth repealing that in the 1970–1980s there were also opposing moods in the LGBT community, calling marriage a “ patriarchal instrument of power” [147] . In 1992, gay activists from the “ Union of Gays of Germany ” first spoke about the possibility of “gay marriage” according to the Danish counterpart [147] . In August 1992, activists of the German Gay Union held an Aktion Standesamt campaign, during which more than 250 same-sex couples went to the registry offices to apply for marriage [147] .
The position on same-sex unions largely explained the existence of two large LGBT organizations. Thus, representatives of BVH offered the concept of “notarized partnerships”, which were not limited to the number and gender of partners. In contrast, members of the SVD adhered to the concept of paired same-sex marriage . BVH representatives accused SVD of betraying the emancipatory principles of the LGBT movement and of wanting to replicate heterosexual marriages. The members of the SVD, on the contrary, believed that the task of homosexuals, as a social minority, does not include changing social foundations. Their goal was a policy of equality and non-discrimination against gays and lesbians. . During the 1990s, the BVH position gradually lost its popularity. As a result, in 1997 the BVH organization was dissolved and SVD remained the only supra-regional LGBT organization in Germany [148] .
In 1991, due to lack of funding, the Aids-Hilfe DDR organization ceases to operate, so the Aids-Hilfe Deutschland organizes a branch for the eastern lands [141] . In the first half of the 1990s, several charitable foundations were created to support people living with HIV, for example, the Positiv leben fund and others [147] . However, the main theme of the German LGBT movement in the first half of the 1990s is violence against LGBT [147] . In addition, the issue of persecution of homosexuals during the times of the Third Reich is again being raised in society. Scientific papers are published on this topic, biographies of homosexual victims of Nazism are published [147] .
In 1992, the Order of Merit for the Federal Republic of Germany received the transgender Charlotte von Malsdorf (Lothar Berfelde) in the field of fighting for LGBT rights. In 1994, the same order was awarded to Manfred Bruns , and in 1996 - Edward Shtapel [147] .
The emergence of a large number of narrow organizations
A large number of highly specialized LGBT organizations also appeared in the 1990s. Various groups are formed, which are characterized by their narrow focus on interests: sports groups, youth groups, groups to help migrants and others.
In 1990, the youth LGBT organization Jugendnetzwerk Lambda was formed, whose activities are aimed at working with homosexual teenagers. Since 1991, in Hamburg, the organization Völklinger Kreis has been operating - the union of homosexual entrepreneurs and industrialists against homophobia and discrimination of LGBT people. In 1999, a similar lesbian organization Wirtschaftsweiber was organized in Berlin.
In 1992, the first large organization of the BiNe bisexual movement was formed - Bisexuelles Netzwerk . The purpose of the organization is to conduct awareness-raising on bisexuality issues, support for self-help groups, cooperation with international bisexual organizations. In the 1990s, branches of the international organization Sisters of Perpetual Condescension also appeared in several German cities ( Heidelberg , Berlin, Hamburg, Cologne).
In 1994, the Association of Homosexual Police Officers was formed - a gay and lesbian association in the German police. In April 1997, the Union of Homosexual Journalists was organized in Berlin ( Bund Lesbischer und Schwuler JournalistInnen ), which, apart from human rights activities, also annually presents awards to journalists for outstanding work in covering LGBT events. In 1998, the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee was reconstructed, which does not consider itself to be an LGBT organization, but a left-wing, sexually emancipated society.
In 1997, the Christian Democratic Democrats-Gays Working Group was formed within the Christian Democratic Union , which in 1998 was transformed into the organization “ Gays and Lesbians in the Union ” [149] .
In 1999, the “Union of Gays of Germany” opened its doors to lesbians and was renamed “The Union of Gays and Lesbians of Germany ” [150] . This is done in order to give German lesbians an alternative to the largest lesbian organization, Lesbenring , which did not accept same-sex marriages from feminist positions. .
The beginning of the 1990s was marked by a sharp increase in the range of gay pride in Germany. For example, in Berlin, the number of CSD participants today reaches 500 thousand annually. Prides are held in almost all major cities of the country.
Since 2011, the first and so far the only Russian-speaking LGBT group Quarteera has been operating in Berlin, whose work is aimed at Russian-speaking migrants in Germany [151] [152] [153] .
Legalization of same-sex unions
From August 1, 2001, the institution of same-sex civil partnerships was introduced in Germany, which had significantly fewer rights than marriages. In the following years, LSVD took an active part in the expansion of the rights of civil partners and in bringing these partnerships closer to ordinary marriages in legal status. In 2004, a law was passed to revise the law on civil partnerships. In subsequent years, as a result of several decisions of the Constitutional Court, same-sex civil partnerships in almost all spheres were equalized with marriages that remained available only to opposite-sex couples. The only serious difference by 2017 was the ban on civil partners to jointly adopt children, as well as fundamentally different terminology, emphasizing that same-sex union is not a marriage [154] .
On October 1, 2017, a law passed on June 30, allowing same-sex couples to marry and adopt children, entered into force. The conclusion of new civil partnerships by this law was abolished, the previously concluded partnerships will continue to exist "as is" and, according to the statement, can be converted into marriage [155] [156] .
Rehabilitation of convicts under § 175
In 1994, a Frankfurt angel memorial dedicated to the homosexual victims of Nazism was opened in Frankfurt am Main [144] . It was only in 1998 that the German Bundestag found it contradictory to human rights and annulled the sentences handed down by the Nazi regime to homosexual men according to § 175 [149] . In January 1999, a memorial ceremony was held in the former concentration camp of Sachsenhausen in honor of the homosexual prisoners of concentration camps, which was the first action in honor of the homosexual victims of Nazism in the concentration camp [149] .
Until 2002, the German government (with the support of the CDU / CSU and the FDP ) denied this. Thanks to the LSVD initiative, a memorial to homosexual victims of Nazism was opened in Berlin in 2008. It is worth noting that by this time in Germany there were already several monuments dedicated to the homosexual victims of Nazism - the Frankfurt Angel , opened in 1994 in Frankfurt am Main, and the Memorial of gays and lesbians - victims of Nazism in Cologne, opened in 1995. In addition, memorial plaques are installed in many places in Germany.
On March 22, 2017, the German government proposed a bill repealing all sentences under § 175, already rendered in post-war Germany. In addition, the bill suggested monetary compensation for convicts [157] . On June 23, 2017, the law was passed by the Bundestag, but in the final final draft of the project, the age of consent was changed from 14 to 16 years, thereby men convicted under paragraph 175 for contacts with adolescents 14-15 years old were excluded from rehabilitation [158] .
Brief chronology of major events
- 1869: First use of the terms homosexual and heterosexual.
- 1871: Extension of criminal prosecution of male-to-male sex to the entire German Empire.
- 1891: Albert Moll publishes the first monograph in German entirely devoted to homosexuality.
- 1896: The first issue of the magazine Der Eigene - the world's first magazine for homosexual men.
- 1897: Creation of the Scientific and Humanitarian Committee - the first organization in the world to defend the rights of homosexuals
- 1919: The Weimar Constitution guarantees homosexuals freedom of speech and assembly.
- 1919: The creation of the Institute of Sexual Sciences , one of whose task was to study homosexuality.
- 1919: Public screening of the first same-sex love film, “ Not Like All ”.
- 1933: The Nazis came to power, banning and closing all LGBT organizations and magazines.
- 1935: Extreme tightening of § 175 (“unnatural fornication between men”).
- 1936: Establishment of the Imperial Central Bureau to combat homosexuality and abortion.
- 1937: The beginning of the deportations of homosexual men to concentration camps.
- 1945: The end of the Second World War and the release of prisoners of the camps.
- 1950: The Supreme Court of the GDR returned § 175 to the pre-Nazi formulation of 1871.
- 1957: The Constitutional Court of Germany recognizes the constitutionality of the Nazi wording § 175 and leaves it in force in the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany.
- 1968: Liberalization in the GDR: the new criminal code does not provide penalties for voluntary contacts between men over 18 years of age.
- 1969: Liberalization of § 175 in the Federal Republic of Germany: abolition of punishments for voluntary contacts between men over 21 years old.
- 1971: The release of the film “ Not a homosexual is perverted, but a situation in which he lives ” provoked an increase in LGBT activity.
- 1972: The first open demonstration of homosexuals at the May Day rally in West Berlin.
- 1973: Liberalization of § 175 in the Federal Republic of Germany: abolition of punishments for voluntary contacts between men over 18 years of age.
- 1979: The first gay prides on German territory took place in West Berlin and Bremen.
- 1989: Liberalization in the GDR: the abolition of punishments for voluntary contacts between men over 14 years old (equalized with opposite-sex contacts).
- 1994: Final cancellation of § 175 in united Germany, the age of sexual consent is equalized for same-sex and multi-sex contacts.
- 2001: The introduction of civil partnerships - the official institution of registration of same-sex unions in the country.
- 2002: Rehabilitation of convicted prisoners in accordance with § 175 and 175a p. 4 (as amended by 1935), rendered in 1935-1945.
- 2017: Rehabilitation of convicted prisoners, according to § 175 (revised 1945), rendered after 1945.
- 2017: Legalizing same-sex marriage, same-sex couples are fully equalized with different-sex marriage issues.
See also
- LGBT rights in Germany
- The pursuit of homosexuality in the German states
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 20.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 11, 13.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 12.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 17
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. sixteen.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 18.
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. nineteen.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 18-19.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. 13.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 14.
- ↑ Terror gegen Homosexuelle, 2002 , p. 98
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Herrn, 1999 , p. 15.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 34-35.
- ↑ 1 2 Dobler & Rimmele, 2008 , p. 543.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. 18.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. sixteen.
- ↑ 1 2 Jellonnek, 1990 , p. 37.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 36, 38.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 18, 19.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 40
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 17, 19.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 43.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. nineteen.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 20.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 23.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Stümke, 1989 , p. 53.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Herrn, 1999 , p. 24
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. 26
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jellonnek, 1990 , p. 41
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Herrn, 1999 , p. 27.
- ↑ Jellonnek, 1990 , p. 40
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Stümke, 1989 , p. 54.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 56, 58.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Stümke, 1989 , p. 58.
- ↑ 1 2 Jellonnek, 1990 , p. 42
- ↑ Jellonnek, 1990 , p. 39-40.
- ↑ Wissenschaft gegen Homophobie (him)
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 61.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Stümke, 1989 , p. 62.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 63-64.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Stümke, 1989 , p. 64.
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 63.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 29.
- ↑ Jellonnek, 1990 , p. 48-49.
- ↑ Jellonnek, 1990 , p. 49.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 53–54.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 28
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Stümke, 1989 , p. 55.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Stümke, 1989 , p. 56.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 54-55.
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 93.
- ↑ Grau, 2004 , p. 44-45.
- ↑ 1 2 Mengel, 2012 , p. 25
- ↑ Grau, 2004 , p. 54.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. 32.
- ↑ Grau, 2004 , p. 54-55.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Herrn, 1999 , p. 37.
- ↑ 1 2 Grau, 2004 , p. 55.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 33.
- ↑ Grau, 2004 , p. 306.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 34
- ↑ Bruns, 2012 , p. 27.
- ↑ Mengel, 2012 , p. 23.
- ↑ Grau, 2004 , p. 93.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 109.
- ↑ Homosexuals: Victims of the Nazi Era . Holocaust Memorial Museum (USA) . Archived September 7, 2012.
- ↑ Homosexuality and the Holocaust - William A. Percy Archived copy dated February 6, 2012 on the Wayback Machine
- ↑ Grau, 2004 , p. 122.
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 111.
- ↑ Grau, 2004 , p. 172, 183-188.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Terror gegen Homosexuelle, 2002 , p. 178.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Herrn, 1999 , p. 38
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 132.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 132-113.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 44.
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 137.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 144
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 42
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 38–39.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 43.
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 146.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 46.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 42, 43.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 46-47.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 47
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 48.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 134.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 42, 48.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. 50.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 50, 52.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Herrn, 1999 , p. 51.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Herrn, 1999 , p. 52.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Stümke, 1989 , p. 152.
- ↑ See StGB, § 175 , as amended on 09/01/1969
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Herrn, 1999 , p. 56.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Dobler & Rimmele, 2008 , p. 544.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 163.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 54.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Stefan Volk: Wilde Wortschlacht, Wutgeheul (inaccessible link) // Titel-Magazin, 04/07/2011 (it.)
- ↑ Dobler & Rimmele, 2008 , p. 542, 544.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Stümke, 1989 , p. 162.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Herrn, 1999 , p. 55.
- ↑ 1 2 Dobler & Rimmele, 2008 , p. 542.
- ↑ Günter Rohrbach. Ohne Maske und Tarnkappe (him) . Der Spiegel , 5/1972 (24. Januar 1972). The appeal date is March 12, 2018.
- ↑ Stefan Volk. Skandalfilm: Von "Ledertypen" und "Pissbudenschwulen" (German) . Der Spiegel (1. Juli 2011). The appeal date is March 12, 2018.
- ↑ 1 2 Jörgen Pötschke. Zwist nach zwölf (German) . Der Spiegel , 4/1973 (22. Januar 1973). The appeal date is December 1, 2012. Archived December 11, 2012.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 161.
- ↑ Dietrich Kuhlbrodt. Nicht der Homosexuelle ist pervers, sondern die Situation, in der er lebt (German) . Filmzentrale. - Movie Review, 1984. The appeal date is March 12, 2018.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Herrn, 1999 , p. 57.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Herrn, 1999 , p. 58.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. 59.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Dobler & Rimmele, 2008 , p. 554.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 159.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Herrn, 1999 , p. 62.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 61.
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 60
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 60, 63.
- ↑ Dobler & Rimmele, 2008 , p. 546, 554.
- ↑ Dobler & Rimmele, 2008 , p. 555.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Dobler & Rimmele, 2008 , p. 546.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 63, 64.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Herrn, 1999 , p. 63.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. 64.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Herrn, 1999 , p. 65.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 148-149.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 42, 45.
- ↑ 1 2 Holger Wicht. Spätes Coming out: Schwule und Lesben in der DDR (German) . fluter (23. November 2003). The date of circulation is January 1, 2013. Archived January 6, 2013.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 45.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Stümke, 1989 , p. 166.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 49, 50.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 60, 61.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 63-64.
- ↑ Terror gegen Homosexuelle, 2002 , p. 178-179.
- ↑ Criminal Code of the GDR . Archived June 11, 2013. in ed. 1974 (him.)
- ↑ 1 2 Terror gegen Homosexuelle, 2002 , p. 179.
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 167.
- ↑ 1 2 Stümke, 1989 , p. 168.
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 169.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 66
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 69
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 70
- ↑ Stümke, 1989 , p. 165.
- ↑ See StGB, § 175 , as amended on 11/28/1973
- ↑ 1 2 Herrn, 1999 , p. 72.
- ↑ See StGB, § 175 , as amended on 11.06.1994
- ↑ "Paragraf 175" abgeschafft (German) . Kalenderblatt DW. The date of circulation is May 21, 2013. Archived May 25, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Herrn, 1999 , p. 71
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 72-73.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Herrn, 1999 , p. 73.
- ↑ Herrn, 1999 , p. 74.
- ↑ Ksenia Maximova. Berlin "flat" . Goethe-Institut Russland (March 2012). The date of circulation is June 20, 2012. Archived September 6, 2012.
- ↑ Xenia Maximova. Regenbogen-Pipeline und Papp-Putin (him) . Berliner Zeitung (20. Juni 2012). The date of circulation is June 20, 2012. Archived September 6, 2012.
- ↑ Olga Sokolowa. Regenbogenwohnung (him) . To4ka-Treff (Juli 2012). The date of circulation is October 10, 2012. Archived October 27, 2012.
- ↑ Was eingetragene Lebenspartnerschaft und Hehe gemeinsam haben (German) . Focus (9. Mai 2017). The date of circulation is July 14, 2017.
- ↑ Steinmeier unterschreibt Gesetz zur Ehe für alle (German) . Welt N24 (21. Juli 2017). The date of circulation is July 22, 2017.
- ↑ The President of Germany signed the law on same-sex marriages . RBC (July 21, 2017). The date of circulation is July 22, 2017.
- ↑ Paragraf 175: Zehntausende Homosexuelle werden rehabilitiert (German) . Welt N24 (22. März 2017). The appeal date is April 11, 2017.
- ↑ Opfer des Paragrafen 175: Bundestag beschließt Rehabilitierung von Schwulen (German) . Der Tagesspiegel (23. Juni 2017). The appeal date is October 18, 2017.
Literature
- Manfred Bruns . Die strafrechtliche Verfolgung homosexueller Männer in der BRD nach 1945 (German) // § 175 StGB: Rehabilitierung der nach 1945 verurteilten homosexuellen Männer. - Berlin: Senatsverwaltung für Arbeit, Integration und Frauen, 2012. - S. 26-43. Archived July 7, 2012.
- Jens Dobler & Harald Rimmele. Schwulenbewegung // Die sozialen Bewegungen in Deutschland seit 1945 (German) / Roland Roth, Dieter Rucht (Hrg.). - Frankfurt / Main: Campus Verlag GmbH, 2008. - S. 541-556. - 770 S. - ISBN 978-3-593-38372-9 .
- Geschichte der Homosexuellen in Deutschland nach 1945 (him.) . - 1. Aufl. - Hamburg: Männerschwarm, 2010. - 248 S. - ISBN 978-3-939542-81-0 .
- Günter Grau. Homosexualität in der NS-Zeit: Dokumente einer Diskriminierung und Verfolgung (German) . - Überarb. Neuausg. - Frankfurt am Mein: Fischer Verlag, 2004. - 367 S. - (Die Zeit des Nationalsozialismus). - ISBN 3-596-15973-3 .
- Rainer Herrn. Anders bewegt: 100 Jahre Schwulenbewegung in Deutschland (him) . - 1. Aufl. - Hamburg: MännerschwarmSkript-Verlag, 1999. - 80 S. - ISBN 3-928983-78-4 .
- Burkhard Jellonnek. Homosexuelle unter dem Hakenkreuz: Die Verfolgung von Homosexuellen im Dritten Reich (German) . - Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh Verlag, 1990. - 355 S. - ISBN 3-506-77482-4 .
- Hans-Joachim Mengel. Strafrechtliche Verfolgung homosexueller Handlungen in Deutschland nach 1945: Zur Rehabilitierung und Entschädigung der nach § 175 und 175a StGB wegen homosexueller Handlungen in der BRD and der DDR Verurteilten (German) . - Berlin: Senatsverwaltung für Arbeit, Integration und Frauen, 2012. - 50 S. Archived July 7, 2012. Archive copy of July 7, 2012 on Wayback Machine
- Hans-Georg Stümke. Homosexuelle in Deutschland: Eine politische Geschichte (German) . - Orig.-Ausg. - München: Beck, 1989. - 183 S. - (Beck'sche Reihe). - ISBN 3-406-33130-0 .
- Nationalsozialistischer Terror gegen Homosexuelle: verdrängt und ungesühnt (German) / Burkhard Jellonnek, Rüdiger Lautmann. - Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh Verlag, 2002. - 428 S. - ISBN 3-506-74204-3 .
- Kon I. S. Homosexual culture in Germany; Fascist genocide // Faces and masks of same-sex love: Moonlight at dawn . - 2nd ed., Pererab. and add. - M .: ACT , 2003. - p. 242-258. - 576 s. - ISBN 5-17-015194-2 .
Links
- Wikimedia Commons has LGBT media in Germany
- Lennart Herberhold. Späte Rehabilitierung für Homosexuelle? (him) . Norddeutscher Rundfunk (3. Dezember 2012). The appeal date is December 8, 2013. Archived October 3, 2013.
- Ella Volodina. Homosexuality in the GDR: Coming out in East Berlin . Deutsche Welle (December 5, 2013). The appeal date is December 8, 2013.