Rawhide

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Russia there were several designations relating (sometimes presumably) to rawhide. Unlike tanned leathers with a certain color, rawhide was included in the category of “white skin”, which apparently also included alum rawhide , as well as fat-tanned leather - suede ^{[comm. 2]} . Since the 17th century, the term "black skin" has been used. It is believed that the so-called tanned skin, soaked in tar . ^[2] But such an impregnation was also used for some types of raw materials.

Along with the name “rawhide” there was another common in the Russian North and North-West, now obsolete, the name is “ball” (meat), from the word “wrinkle” ^{[comm. 3]} . Another name for tanners comes from him - “henchmen”. ^[3]

Raw suede leather made by tanners of the peoples of the North, Siberia and North America is usually called "suede" in the literature. In Russian ethnography, it is also customary to denote it by the word "rovduga" ^[4] . This term is also known from the letter of 1586 "Rovduga" or "rovdoga" (archang., Kolymsk.) Comes from the Sami roavggo - the cavity of the sleigh from the skins ^{[comm. 4]} . Another ancient name is deer or goat raw suede, “irche” ^{[comm. 5]} , it was known in Siberia and Novgorod. In Novgorod, special tanners — “hazelnuts” —were engaged in its manufacture. In the Arkhangelsk province, the words “vezha” (from rinse or cleanse the skin) and “mesnip” (from mezdr ) were also used. ^{[comm. 6]} Also in Russia, faceless raw materials from the skin of an elk or deer were called “elk”. In the Don Cossacks, the white rawhide with the face is called “sourness”.

In the West, this skin is most often called "deer skin" ( English buckskin , deerskin ), since initially it really was always deer skin. Another term is often found - "brain tanning skin" ( English brain tanning ). Coarser raw materials with a front surface are simply called “raw skin” ( English rawhide , raw hide ). There are other traditional names . In North America, the word of French origin is also used to denote the hard skin of the Native American dressing - "parfles" ( French parflèche , English parfleche ).

Different peoples have (or existed) many ways of artisanal or industrial production of raw materials. It can retain hair , have a hairless smooth face, or look like suede . Thickness and density may also be different.

In Russia, the following types of raw materials were produced: scraped (scalloped, scalloped), bread (Russian), alum (Hungarian, German), pickled , ash-bread, spread, milk, smoky, frozen, ash-glucose, alcohol. It was mainly used in the manufacture of belts, ties, horse harnesses , bridles , harnesses , knights ^{[comm. 7]} , side ^{[comm. 8]} .

The peoples of Siberia were also made to raw up from fish skin , from which they also made threads. The throats ( trachea ) and esophagus of a dog, seal, gull are similarly used. They are used for applications. The use of fish skin is also known in North America. Raw materials are also made from snake skin. In Europe, the production of rawhide down skins of birds was widespread.

Raw materials also include leather specially made for writing - parchment and velvet .

Strips of raw materials of different types could be used to tie stone and other tools ( axes , scrapers , etc.) to the handles, starting from the Middle Stone Age , since it tends to shrink when it dries.

Shoes were sewn from soft raw materials. Moreover, both suede-like ( loafers ) and denser facial rawhide were used (ancient Russian pistons and their analogues among other peoples of Southern and Eastern Europe ^{[comm. 9]} , as well as Central Asia and the Caucasus ^{[comm. 10]} ) or fur ( boots ). Also soft types of rawhide were used for making clothes. This primarily concerns the leather clothes of hunting and reindeer peoples of the North and Siberia (see. Park ). The same is true in North America, where Native Americans used buckskins (which was also popular with white hunters, for example ^{[comm. 11]} ) (see also bison hide cloak ). An exception was the elk , which in Russia XVIII - early. XX centuries went to some items of military wardrobe. Hence the name of the pants - " leggings ."

In addition to clothes, belts, ropes and many other household items were made from soft raw materials. A bow string for bows was also made from twisted rawhide straps (ribbons), including in Russia ^{[5] [comm. 12]} . In Canada, from rawhide strips called babiche [bə'bi: ʃ] ^{[comm. 13]} or shaganappi [ˈshagəˌnapē] ^{[comm. 14]} make the straps or laces used in sewing for the manufacture of snares, snowshoe nets, etc.

Rough thick rawhide goes to saddlery and to the manufacture of whips , carnations and lassos . It was used in leather armor , as well as for covering wooden shields, as it is more impact resistant than tanned leather. Especially made rawhide or parfleche was widely used by North American Indians in the manufacture of the same name parfleshes - bags in the form of envelopes and other forms ^{[comm. 15]} for storing pemmican , as well as other products and things, cases for hats , soles of moccasins, a sheath , waist belts, shields , tipi doors.

Still preserved its use in the field of traditional cultures and crafts, as well as in technology. Rigid rawhide is still used in saddlery, and is also used in orthopedic products. From rawhide belts and straps make simple and soft ski bindings ^{[comm. 16]} , winding on sticks for playing hockey with the ball ^[6] , stitching for conveyor belts. Raw bones are also used to make “bones” and other goodies for domestic dogs ^{[comm. 17]} .

A certain amount of brain-produced skin is produced in Western countries and in Turkey for the needs of light and haberdashery industries. It is quite expensive, made by hand and is known under the traditional name "buckskin" or "brain tanning leather." Although such a commercial name can also be given to tanned leathers having a corresponding appearance ^{[comm. 18]} .

Plasticity of rawhide is higher than that of tanned leather. But poorly developed raw materials after getting wet and then drying out or simply eventually may lose their original softness and even become horny, like wet skin . Raw material is protected from this by the presence in it of a certain amount of fat remaining after dressing, and smoke tar in smoky products. Some products, for the sake of safety, from time to time are subjected to additional fatliquoring, tar lubrication and smoke. After these operations, the raw material acquires a creamy, yellowish or brownish color of varying intensity. Also, to increase the water resistance, blood impregnation is used.

To improve quality, raw materials are sometimes lightly tanned. This is achieved by staining the deer skin with the alder bark in a reddish-brown color, wetting with fused tea or decoctions of other tannins.

More vulnerable is white raw materials. Especially if it is not yet saturated with fat. Clothing made of such leather has a number of disadvantages, as it can not only harden after getting wet, but also easily contaminated. Indians use white clay to clean white leather clothing ^{[comm. 19]} . For whitening the skin is also exposed to the sun. Thick raw also often remains white.

Rawhide products are also painted, painted , hot stamped and used for various types of embroidery .

The property of raw materials is that, having got wet, it “sags”, that is, it becomes somewhat slippery to the touch. This is manifested to varying degrees, depending on the method of manufacture. Rawhide does not have a specific odor, which is characteristic of industrial tanned leathers. Depending on the processing method, it has a fresh meat smell or the smell of fat, which is impregnated. Oily skin smells strongly. An unpleasant odor emits raw, saturated with tar or blubber. To give a pleasant smell to leather clothes, the Indians of the Great Plains stored it together with fragrant grass - Eng. sweetgrass . An important property of rawhide is that it remains virtually the same raw skin, that is, a completely edible product. Therefore, in difficult situations, things were cooked and eaten from it. Tanned leathers are much less suitable for this because of the chemicals they contain and longer cooking times.

Not all of the existing types of rawhide are commonly called rawhide. This can be explained as follows. If you arrange in a row of skin different methods of dressing, where at the beginning there will be raw skin, then rawhide without any impregnation, and at the other end there will be tanned leather with the strongest chemicals, then naturally, between them there will be intermediate methods of dressing. The difference between all methods lies in the ability of impregnating substances to create weaker or stronger bonds with collagen fibers of the dermis , and in the reversibility of these bonds. Therefore, the more difficult it is to wash these substances and return the skin to its original state, the more reasons to call skin tanned. And vice versa. In reality, the name largely depends on the established tradition. ^[7]

But compared to just raw skin (raw skin, raw ), rawhide goes through more processing steps. All methods for producing raw materials generally have the same order of operations: skinning; dehairing (if required); various methods of impregnating the skin with the necessary substances (not to soften, as is often imagined, but to loosen and prevent subsequent adhesion of collagen fibers); drying with simultaneous or subsequent kneading. Sometimes impregnation and drying is replaced by freezing, and then, if necessary, fatliquoring is carried out . For raw materials such as rovdugs, the final operation is more often carried out - smoke.

Dehairing

Dehairing or sodding , that is, hair removal, can be divided into two main methods: with the preservation of the face and with the removal of the face. In the first case, the hair is removed in primitive ways (shaved, plucked, scorched); chemically driven ^{[comm. 20]} (for example, a solution of hydrated lime , sodium sulfide or wood ash ^{[comm. 21]} ); the fermentation process is used during pickling, or the decomposition of hair follicles is simply achieved, for example, when the skin is left for some time in lukewarm water ^{[comm. 22]} . In the second method, the hair is scraped off, cut off, or simply torn off along with the facial layer ^{[comm. 23]} . Perhaps the combined use of these methods.

Impregnation

Traditionally, fats (including blubber ), liver and animal brain are used for impregnation in the production of rawhide ^{[Comm. 24]} , iron (spleen), strong decoction of bones, fish and meat decoction, fish caviar, animal stomach contents, dairy products ( yogurt , airan ), egg yolk, rotten water diluted with water, bran , oil , deer droppings and old human urine . Polar sea animal hunters use sealer skins for sewing shoes after they are processed in salt water for a long time serving as floats. A rawhide bow string can be made by soaking it in fresh animal blood. Potato starch is used for bird skins.

In Russian methods of dressing, sour kvass or jelly from flour and bran are used. Such skin is also called “half-baked” or “pickled skin”. In the production of the so-called “Hungarian raw materials ” alum ( alum ) is used ^{[comm. 25]} . Alumming is used after jelly or as a separate method. There is another modern version of dressing - pickling , which uses neutral salts ( sodium chloride ) and weak solutions of various acids ( sulfuric , acetic , formic ) ^{[comm. 26]} .

Kneading

An important step is kneading (wrinkling) (for thin skins - sipping), manually or by stamping. In this case, simple and somewhat more complex devices are often used (dragging through a rope, through a stake with a sharp edge, using the whisk “commissary” ^{[comm. 27]} , dragging belts through a slot in various types of bream ( bream ) or through the Don pulp , using crushing in a wooden mortar , wrinkled denticles in the form of serrated jaws, twisting a suspended roll of skin using a load and inertia, or using a Don pulp on horse drawn traction). There is such an old method as chewing with teeth (peoples of the North), in addition to which saliva enzymes are involved. In Russia, raw-material belts went through the “landing” process by dragging them through paired sticks with rectangular cutouts. Due to what they were calibrated and acquired the desired profile. On the Don bead and during the planting of belts, the skin is fattening.

Smoke

Smoke ( smoking ) saturates the skin with tar, which protects it from hardening, promotes conservation, due to the presence of formaldehyde in it, and gives color. With rare exceptions, only subtle types of raw materials are smoked. It is produced either in a special room, or simply stitching the skin into a pipe or bag and hanging it over a smoldering fire. The quality of the smoke can reduce the formation of wrinkles on the skin, the ingress of snow or drops of water on it, as well as excessive or soot fire. The latter is eliminated, excluding resinous wood species and using rotten.

• Azerbaijani: gene, ken ( gön , gȫn , kön ), letters. - dressed (leather); xam göndən , letters. - raw dressed (skin).
• English: rawhide , letters. - raw (i.e. raw materials), raw, rough; buckskin , deerskin , doeskin , letters. - doesn’t brain tanning , letters. - brain tanning; bridle leather - bridle skin; fat-tanned leather - leather tanned with fat ^[8] ; taw - tan skin without tanning.
• Belarusian: syramyat ( -tsі - feminine.) - raw.
• Bulgarian: syromyaty - rawhide, syromyatnaya skin - rawhide.
• Ancient Turkic: qoγїš , qoγuš (from qoγša- - soften).
• Spanish: cuero crudo , cuero en verde , cuero no curtido , crudo , sin adobar , cuero sin curtir .
• Italian: cuoio ( conciato ) alľolio - leather, oiled; cuoio conciato in allume - alum leather non conciato - not tanned, pelle f non conciata , pellame m grezzo .
• Kazakh: Kayys - rawhide, rawhide; Kayys terі - rawhide; ilenbegen terі - unfinished skin; shikі - unfinished, raw skin; shylғi - insufficiently finished skin, rawhide ^[9] .
• Kyrgyz: chiyiki , chyly , zhash kayysh , breadth (raw-smoked skin of cattle, goes for making dishes, was used for torture) ^[10] .
• German: Rohhaut , rohleder - rawhide and raw skin, Hirschleder - deerskin , weißgares Leder - white skin; weißgegerbtes Leder - white skin; Weißleder - white leather (leather for harness of alum tanning and greased with fat, produced in Hungary); Seremetleder - rawhide; Alaunleder - leather, hollowed out by alum.
• Delaware : àskxès ( -ni ) - rawhide , xèsii ( -na ) - skin ^[11] .
• Russia: Limar Region ^{[comm. 28]} - to raw in New Russia; milk belt - the thinnest, strongest raw material, dressed on yogurt; fumes (Kamchatka) - smoked deerskin; vezha (archangels.) suede (possibly rawhide); Irga, Irha ^{[comm. 29] [12]} (kalugs., Novoross.) - goat or sheep suede (possibly rawhide), ihrha (Siberian) - deer, elk, lamb, goat skin dressed in raw suede; moose, moose - moose skin, usually in the form of suede (rawhide); mezdryanka - suede, leather of soft, thick, friable dressing (apparently raw) ball, ball, ball, wrinkled, wrinkled or soft leather (XVI-XVII centuries), hence - a hedgehog ^[3] ; pulp (skin) (Siberian) - suede, venison of suede dressing (apparently raw) half (East Siberian.) - the skin of red deer, elk, roe deer, and sometimes a bear, dressed in suede (apparently raw), the cavity is suede; rovduga, ravduga, rovdoga, rovduga (including Siberian.) - deer, elk, lamb, goat skin, dressed in raw suede; ^[13] Mandarka (Chukchi, Eskimos, Koryak, Aleuts) - facial raw, raw white of the skin of the seal (sometimes painted) ^[14] .
• Santi Dakota : ta-há-sa-ka - hard to raw ^[15] , taha and ha kpaŋyaŋpi - dressed leather ^[16] .
• Tatar: Well Chi Kaesh - to raw.
• Tuvinsky : breadth - dense rawhide ^[17] .
• Turkish: ham deri .
• Ukraine: Syria , limarschina - to raw; shkіra-siritsya - rawhide; Syriac , Syrom'yatny ^[18] ; limarchy - the production of raw materials; Kushnіstvo - the production of furs, including rawhide.
• Finnish: mäntti , mänttinahka .
• French: cuir ďœuvre , non tanné , cuir tanné au graisse , cuir vert .
• Czech: mazaná holina , tukem vyčištěná holina , holina - to raw.
• Khaksky: carp , köң - rawhide ^[19] .
• Choctaw : tvlhko - buckskin ^[20] .
• Cheyenne : vó'kaehevôtse , vó'aehevôtse , pl. h.: vó'kaehevotôtse - soft skin of a deer or pronghorn .
• Swedish: råhud - rawhide and raw skin.

• Fatliquoring
• Leather industry
• Smoking
• Moccasins
• Picking
• Fish skin
• Raw skin
• Rawhide

• Antropova V.V. Culture and life of Koryak. - L .: Nauka, 1971.
• Aleksashenko N. A. Tannery on the Yamal Peninsula (archeology and ethnography) // Ural Historical Bulletin. - Yekaterinburg, 2002. - No. 8. - S. 184—198.
• Arbuzov S.V. Production of raw materials. - M .: State. scientific and technical publishing house of literature on light industry, 1957.
• Veretennikov I.N. , Feldman Ya. G. Production of raw materials. - M .: State. publishing house of local industry of the RSFSR, 1944.
• Zuev V.F. Materials on the ethnography of Siberia of the 18th century - M. - L., 1947.
• The history and culture of the Nanai. Historical and ethnographic essays. Collect. monograph. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2003 .-- S. 130, 131, 229, 230. - ISBN 5-02-027073-3 .
• Kocheshkov N.V. Decorative art of the peoples of the Lower Amur and Sakhalin of the 19th — 20th centuries: Problems of ethnic traditions. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1995. - S. 19. - ISBN 5-02-027382-1 .
• Kurbatov A.V. Leather raw materials, technical support for its manufacture and a range of leathers from medieval Russia // Stratum plus. - 2010. - No. 5. - S. 169-218 .
• Malinova R., Raspberry J. Leap into the past: The experiment reveals the secrets of ancient eras / Per. from Czech .. - M.: Thought, 1988. - S. 76-78. - ISBN 5 244 00188 4
• Medvedev A.F. Hand throwing weapons (bow and arrows, self-arrows) VIII — XIV centuries // Archeology of the USSR. Arch of archaeological sources. - M .: Nauka, 1966. - Issue. E1-36. - S. 14, 15.
• The method of production of raw materials from the elk skins. - M.: TSNIITEI Legprom, 1970.
• Morgan L.G. League of Hodenosauni, or Iroquois / Per. from English - M .: Glav. ed. Eastern lit. Publishing House "Science", 1983. - P. 189. - (Series "Ethnographic Library").
• Peoples of America / Ed. A. I. Efimova, S. A. Tokareva - T. I // Peoples of the world: Ethnographic essays. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1959.
• Potapov L.P. Features of the material culture of the Kazakhs, due to the nomadic way of life // Sat. MAE. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1949. - T. XII.
• Prytkova N. F. Clothing of the Khanty // Sat. MAE. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1953. - T. XV.
• Semenov S. A., Korobkova G. F. Technology of ancient productions: Mesolithic - Eneolithic. - L.: “Science”, Leningrad Department, 1983. - S. 135-190.
• Furrierry: A practical book for peasants, farmers, modern handicraftsmen, hunters, procurers and everyone who wants to know this ancient and profitable craft. Tips for repairing, remaking fur products and caring for them / Comp. V. Brodov, V. Viktorov, M. Kozelsky - 4th ed., Supplemented. - M: Sunday, 1998. - ISBN 5-88528-113-0 .
• Smolyak V.G. Folk art crafts of the Amur region // To a rural teacher about folk art crafts of Siberia and the Far East: A book for a teacher / Comp. T. B. Mitlyanskaya. - M: Enlightenment, 1983 .-- S. 114, 115.
• Sokolova Z.P. Travel to Yurga. - M .: Thought, 1982. - S. 29, 31, 69, 70, 104, 105.
• Ward Fred Goodbye, Cree ... // Around the World. - 1975. - No. 12.
• Khoykhin A.I. Dressing of yuft and raw materials at non-mechanized industrial cooperation plants. - M .: KOIZ, 1944.
• Chubarova L.I. Dressing hides in a traditional folk way // To a rural teacher about folk art crafts of Siberia and the Far East: A book for a teacher / Comp. T. B. Mitlyanskaya. - M: Enlightenment, 1983. - S. 231-233.
• Laubin R. , Laubin G. The Indian Tipi: Its History, Construction, and Use - Second Edition. - Norman, London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989 .-- P. 73-91. - ISBN 0-8061-2236-6 .
• Steltzer Ulli. Indian Artists at Work. - Vancouver, 1976 .-- P. 123.
• Wissler Clark. North American Indians of the Plains. - NY: American Museum of Natural History, 1927. - P. 57–62.

• Dressing fur skins
• Making rawhide ( rawhide / parfleche )
• Rawhide GOST 1562—69
• Collection of Parfleshes
• Russian rawhide dressing , [3]
• Harness for a horse - manufacturing
• Is it worth it to make skin in a makeshift way?
• Raw // Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary : in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
• Raw in dictionaries
• Traditional technology for making deer skin (dolgans)
• Belitz L. Brain dressing. How do Sioux do it
• Morrow M. Indian Rawhide