Sanskrit

Sanskrit was common in Northern India as one of the languages ​​of the rock epigraphy ^[3] from the 1st century BC. er ^[4] . Sanskrit should not be considered as the language of any people , but as a language of a certain culture, common only among the social elite , at least since antiquity ^{[5] [6] [7] [8]} . This culture is mainly represented by Hindu religious texts , and just like Latin and Greek in the West, Sanskrit in the East in subsequent centuries became the language of intercultural communication of scholars and religious figures.

Currently, Sanskrit is one of the 22 official languages ​​of India ^[9] .

Sanskrit influenced the development of the languages ​​of India and Nepal (mainly in vocabulary) and some other languages ​​that were in the Sanskrit or Buddhist culture ( Kawi ^{[10] [11]} , Tibetan ) ^{[4] [12] [13]} . In India, Sanskrit is used as the language of humanities and religious worship , in a narrow circle - as a spoken language . Works of artistic , religious , philosophical , legal and scientific literature were written in Sanskrit, which influenced the culture of Southeast and Central Asia and Western Europe ^[4] .

Works on vocabulary and grammar in Sanskrit, put together Panini in the "Eight Books", were the earliest works in the history of language learning. They influenced the emergence of morphology and many linguistic disciplines in Europe ^[14] .

Typical pronunciation for the Brahmins , where the syllable ri is often placed on the site of the ancient syllable vowel sound ṛ , served as a prototype for the Sanskrit word that has now become traditional in Europe . The meaning of the word संस्कृता saṃskṛtā is “literary,” as opposed to popular, non-literary prakrits . The name itself says nothing about the nationality of the language, as in Ancient India, most likely, they could not yet know that there are other literary languages ​​besides Indian. Nowadays, they would have to call this language any language, accompanying this word to others who speak of its nationality.

The very name “Sanskrit” is quite recent, for many centuries this language was simply called वाच (vāc) ^IAST or शब्द (śabda) ^IAST “word, language”, regarding it as the only opportunity for speech. Several metaphorical names, such as गीर्वांणभाषा (gīrvāṇabhāṣā) ^IAST "language of the gods", indicate its exclusively religious nature.

There is no uniform writing system for Sanskrit. This is due to the fact that literary works were transmitted mainly orally. When it became necessary to write the text, the local alphabet was usually used. Devanagari as a Sanskrit script began to be actively used in the seventh and was established at the end of the 10th century ^[15] . According to one hypothesis, Devanagari was introduced to India approximately in the V century BC. er from the Middle East merchants. Even after learning the written language, Indians continued to memorize texts in order to protect culture from uneducated (lower castes).

The oldest known writing system for Sanskrit is called Brahmi . A unique monument of ancient Indian history is written on the Brahmi - “ Ashoka Inscriptions ” (III century BC). The writing of the Kharoshthi dates from about the same period. From IV to VIII century AD e. Gupta became the main type of writing. From the 8th century , the writing of the charade began to take shape, and in the 12th century it was replaced by the Devanagari .

Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family ^[16] . Sanskrit had a profound influence on the languages ​​of North India, such as Hindi , Urdu , Bengali , Marathi , Kashmir , Punjabi , Nepali, and even Gypsy ^{[17] [18]} .

Within the vast Indo-European language family, Sanskrit has undergone the same sound changes as all the other languages ​​of the satem group (these changes are especially well traced in the Baltic , Slavic and Ancient Armenian languages), although the Indo-Iranian languages ​​also share a number of characteristic common features with the Thracian and Albanian languages. ^[19] . In order to explain the common features inherent in Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages, many scientists adhere to the theory of migration , arguing that the original native speakers of Sanskrit ancestor came to modern India and Pakistan from the north-west approximately at the beginning of the second millennium BC. er The evidence of this theory includes the close affinity of Indo-Iranian languages ​​with the Baltic and Slavic languages ^[20] , the presence of language borrowings from non-Indo-European Finno-Ugric languages ^[21] , as well as the presence of common identified Indo-European words for flora and fauna . A less numerous part of scientists and a rather large number of Indian researchers adhere to the opposite point of view and believe that the speakers of the ancient form of Indo-Iranian language were the indigenous people of India, associating them with the creators of the Kharapskaya civilization .

It existed in parallel with its cognate ancient Iranian language (a branch that includes at least two identified languages ​​- Avestan and Ancient Persian ) ^[22] . The study of many Indian or Middle Indo-Aryan languages ​​leads to the question of the existence in Antiquity in northern India, in parallel with Sanskrit, at least one more Indo-Aryan language, which supposedly could convey to the modern Hindi part of its vocabulary and its phonetic composition, inherited from a source common to Sanskrit, but not present in Sanskrit. If this is not the case, then we can speak about language levels (inherent in certain social strata, for example, the caste of merchants).

Judging by the Hittites found in the country, written in yet another Indo-European language ( Hittite ), having several Indo-Aryan words ^[23] - nouns (terms of horse breeding), as well as proper names ( theonyms ), it is possible to determine that in some form of the Indo-Aryan language talked in western Asia in the XIV century. BC e ^{[24] [25]} . However, many linguists respond to the testimony of the indianization of Asia Minor in the epoch of the Bronze Age , that in this case it is not about the “Old Indian” language or, as it is also called, “ancient Indo-Aryan ”, but about a certain form of Indo-Iranian language used in a certain cultural level or as a language of religious ceremonies, which was close to Dovedian Sanskrit. In other words, a certain socio-cultural group speaking the common Indo-Iranian language, consisting of merchants and equestrian mercenaries (so-called “Mariyana”), jewelers working with lapis lazuli , who was present not only in Ancient Mesopotamia , but both in Egypt and Central Asia , where it mingled with Assyrian merchants, as well as with the Hurrians , descending from the foothills of the Caucasus to Syria and Cilicia (the Mitanni empire in northern Syria , Cilicia).

Vedic Sanskrit

Vedic Sanskrit or Ved language is a language of several monuments of ancient Indian literature, including hymn books, sacrificial formulas (" ऋग्वेद - Rig-Veda ", " सामवेद - Sama-Veda ", " Yajur-Veda ", " Atharva-Veda ") and religious treatises ( Upanishads ). Most of these works are written in the so-called. "Middle Ages" and "Novovedicheskom languages", with the exception of "Rig-Veda", the language of which can be considered as the most ancient form of Vedic Sanskrit. The language of the Vedas is separated from classical Sanskrit by approximately the same period of time as the Greek language of the epoch of Homer is separated from the classical ancient Greek language . The ancient Indian linguist Panini (around the 5th century BC ) considered Vedic and classical Sanskrit as different languages. And now, many scientists consider the Vedic (most ancient) and classical Sanskrit as different dialects . But in general, these languages ​​are very similar. It is believed that classical Sanskrit is derived from Vedic.

Of the Vedic monuments of the most ancient recognized "Rig-Veda", the last - Upanishads. It is extremely difficult to date the “Rig-Veda” itself, and, therefore, the beginning of the real history of the Vedic language: sacred texts in the earliest epoch of their existence were pronounced out loud and memorized (which is being done even now). Now linguists distinguish many historical strata in the Vedic language (at least two or three), based on grammar , theonyms and stylistic features of texts. The first nine books of the Rig-Veda can be called written in the "ancient medieval language."

Epic Sanskrit

Epic Sanskrit is a transitional form from Vedic to classical. This form of Sanskrit is a later form of Vedic Sanskrit that has undergone some linguistic evolution (for example, at this stage of language development, the subjunctive disappear). Epic Sanskrit is a pre-classical form of Sanskrit and was used around the 5th or 4th centuries. BC er For this form of Sanskrit it would be possible to choose the definition of "Late Macedonian". It is believed that the original form of this Sanskrit was the language that Panini , undoubtedly the first linguist of Antiquity (although his structuralist approach could also be the fruit of a more ancient heritage), described grammatically and phonologically in his work, which was well-composed and unsurpassed in formalism. Structurally, Panini’s treatise called Ashtadhyayi is a complete analogue of modern similar linguistic works, for which modern science had to go through thousands of years of its development. In the very same treatise, Panini seeks to describe the language in which he spoke himself, while also using the Vedic expressions, without mentioning that they are already archaic. It is during this era that Sanskrit begins to be streamlined and normalized. Such famous works as “ Ramayana ” and “ Mahabharata ” are written in the epic Sanskrit.

Deviations of the language of the epos from the language stated in Panini’s work are generally explained not by the fact that it was created before Panini, but by “innovations” that occurred under the influence of the Prakrit . Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations “ ārṣa ^IAST ” (आर्ष) - descended from rishi , as ancient authors traditionally called. In a sense, the epic contains more "prakritizmov" (borrowing from the common language ) than the actual classical Sanskrit. Similarly, Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit was the literary language of medieval India , which was based on early Buddhist texts written in Prakrit, which subsequently was gradually more or less assimilated by classical Sanskrit.

The appearance of Prakrit

The appearance of the first Prakrit ( प्रकृति , prâkrit ^IAST or prākṛta ^IAST "ordinary [language]") dates back to the III century BC. er , the identification of this event was greatly facilitated by the inscriptions of King Ashoka . These languages ​​correspond to less “noble” than Sanskrit dialects , that is, spoken and popular languages used in daily practice, which quickly separated from one another and gave birth to many Indo-Aryan languages present in the Indian subcontinent . They all come from the same Indo-Aryan root, and each of them has undergone its own evolution and has its own destiny. Among others, modern languages ​​such as Hindi , Punjabi and Bengali originated from the same Prakrit. These languages ​​are “vulgar”, or coarse, to the same extent as the “vulgar” Latin is , that is, all of these languages ​​are “the people speak”; their status of local dialects , which were not considered real languages , explains the fact that, at least until the 19th century , literature in modern Indian languages could not supplant Sanskrit literature.

In addition to the inscriptions of Ashoka , the Sanskrit texts also revealed a lot of revolutions from the Prakrit, mainly the texts of theatrical plays, in which the characters of the lower classes mostly speak the spoken language; however, this evidence is more fictional and cannot be considered true. In this case, it is possible to draw an analogy with a certain “ patois ” used in some of Moliere’s plays, such as Don Juan , where the author tries to portray the spoken language; that which is present there can in no way be regarded as the true French spoken language of that era, since the play uses only its artificially created likeness. Thus, although literature in Prakrit existed, for the most part classical, and not spoken language was hidden behind it. One of the Prakrit, Pali , has a different fate. This language itself became the sacred language of the Theravada Buddhism and practically has not evolved since then, remaining presented in its original form at worship services and in religious texts right up to the present day. Finally, the religion of Jainism is set forth on another prakrit , ardhamagadhi , which allowed it to preserve its numerous testimonies, although again in the same fictitious form as in the case of the prakrits described in Sanskrit literature. Nevertheless, all this gives a general idea of ​​the prakrits used in the classical period of Indian history.

Classic Sanskrit

The first criticism of Prakrit appears in the II century BC. er in Patanjali’s comments made by him to the Panini grammar (in his work Mahabhashya ). In this paper, the commentator proves that Sanskrit is still a living language, but that dialectal forms can supplant it. Thus, the treatise recognizes the existence of prakrits, but the use of colloquial forms of language is strictly condemned, while the recording of grammatical norms is even more standardized. From that moment, Sanskrit finally freezes in its development, becoming a classic Sanskrit, also denoted by the term saṃskr̥ta (which, however, has not yet been used by Patanjali), which can be translated as “complete, complete; completely made "(the same epithet describes various dishes).

According to Tiwari (1955), there were four main dialects in classical Sanskrit: Paschimottari paścimottarī ^IAST (northwestern, also called northern or western), madhyadshi madhyadeśī ^IAST (literally: "central country"), purvi pūrvi ^IAST (eastern) and dakshi dakṣiṇī ^IAST (southern, which appeared in the classical period). The forerunners of the first three dialects were present in the Brahmans of the Vedas , of which the first was regarded as the most pure ( Kaushitaki-Brahman , 7.6).

After the advent of our era, language is no longer used in its natural form, it exists only in the form of grammars and no longer evolves. Sanskrit becomes a language of worship and a language of belonging to a certain cultural community , not having any connection with living languages, often used as a " lingua franca " and a literary language (even used by peoples speaking in languages ​​not related to the ancient Indian , such as Dravidian peoples ). Such a situation will exist until about 14th century the Neo-Indian languages, which originated from Prakrit, would not be used in writing, up to the 19th century , when Sanskrit would be completely supplanted from the national languages ​​of India from literature. It is noteworthy that the Tamil language , belonging to the Dravidian language family , which has no kinship with Sanskrit, but also belongs to a very ancient culture , very early began to compete with Sanskrit since the first centuries of our era. There are even some borrowings from this language in Sanskrit.

Numerous sociolinguistic studies of the use of Sanskrit in oral speech clearly indicate that its oral use is very limited and that language no longer has development. Based on this fact, many scholars conclude that Sanskrit has become a “ dead ” language, although the very definition of this concept is not so obvious. So, Sheldon Pollock (2001) describes Sanskrit in comparison with another “dead” Latin language:

The expulsion of Sanskrit from use in literature and political circles was associated with a weakening of the institutions of power that supported it, as well as with increased competition with the spoken languages, whose speakers sought to develop their own national literature. Numerous regional variations of this process caused the heterogeneity of the disappearance of Sanskrit in the Indian subcontinent . For example, after the XIII century , Kashmiri was used as a literary language along with Sanskrit in some areas of the Vijayanagar empire , but Sanskrit works had no circulation outside of it, and vice versa, books written in Telugu and Kannada languages were widely distributed throughout India.

But despite the decline in the use of Sanskrit in oral speech, Sanskrit continues to be used in the written culture of India, and those who could read local languages ​​could also read Sanskrit. There is a Wikipedia section in Sanskrit. Since the independence of India in 1947, more than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been created ^[26] .

As a result of the ongoing efforts to 14 , 14,135 people indicated that Sanskrit is their first language in the Indian census of 2001 ^[1] . Also in the Nepal population census of 2011, 1,669 people indicated Sanskrit as their first language ^[27] . To preserve the uninterrupted tradition of Sanskrit scholarship, both India and Nepal organized Sanskrit universities, whose work is conducted in Sanskrit. The most famous of these are the and ^[28] .

Phonetics

Classical Sanskrit has about 36 phonemes. If allophones are taken into account (and the writing system takes them into account), then the total number of sounds in a language increases to 48. An important feature of the language is its distinctive longitude, as in Baltic languages . This feature is a significant difficulty for the speakers of the Russian language, studying Sanskrit.

Vowels

Below are the vowels of Sanskrit. In the Devanagari (system of writing), vowels at the beginning of a line and in a syllable are indicated in different ways - in the first case by a letter (see the first column), in the second - by a diacritical sign (the second column).

Long vowels sound about twice as long as short ones. There is, however, recognized by no means all, a third degree of duration - the so-called rogue . It is used mainly in the vocative case. The vowels / e / and / o / are the allophones of the sounds / ai / , / au / of the Indo-Iranian proto-language, and therefore are regarded as diphthongs, although in fact they are simple long sounds.

• There are a few more characters in Devanagari:
  • The diacritical mark ं anusvara , ( IAST :). It is used to refer to the nasal overturning following the vowel, which, depending on the phonetic environment, may take various forms - [ŋ] before the laryngeal, [ɳ] before the retroflex, as well as / n / or / m / at the end of words or between vowels, for example, पं / pəŋ / . May indicate a change in timbre (as in French) (?).
  • The diacritical mark ः visarga , means / əh / ( IAST :); for example, पः / pəh / .
  • The diacritic mark is ँ chandrabindu or anunasika ^[29] . Can be used instead of anusvara to denote nasalization . Characteristic of Vedic Sanskrit; for example, पँ / pə̃ / .
• The vowel / aː / , although described as back, is in fact more anterior than its English equivalent / ɑː / .
• In the Devanagari writing system, any consonant for which there is no vowel is always joined by the diacritical sign of viram ्, which means "stop" and indicates that this consonant is devoid of a vowel.
• A vowel is not pronounced after a consonant marked with a viram sign , for example, the letter प् is read as “p”, and without viram प - as “pa”.

Consonants

The table shows the consonant sounds of Sanskrit and their designations in Devanagari , the international phonetic alphabet and IAST . Since Devanagari is a syllable letter, all consonant letters, if they are not to be read like a syllable, have a letter to Viram.

The grammar of Sanskrit is very complex. In Sanskrit, three numbers - the only, dual and plural, three faces - the first (s), the second (you) and the third (he, she, it), about fifteen times and inclinations. A system of participles (active in the present, passive in the present, active in the past, passive in the past and others), infinitive has been developed. Infinitive and participles are formed by suffixes, verbs and moods - from the roots, with the help of personal endings, infixes and rules for changing the root in time and ganas.

Verb Root

In Sanskrit, there is the concept of the verbal root. A complete list of verb roots is given in the book Dhatu-pathha Sanskrit. धातुफाटः . This book was written by the grammar Panini in the IV century BC. The book has more than 2,000 roots, of which 566 are most often used. Roots in Dhatu-path are divided into 10 ganas (chapters) by the type of verb conjugation that is formed from them.

Not only verbs are formed from roots, but also other parts of speech - participles, nouns, adjectives.

Nouns, adjectives and participles (almost always) are formed by adding to the root 17-18 primary regular suffixes and more than one hundred primary irregular suffixes. Primary regular suffixes:

अ, अ (ण), अन, त, अक, तृ, इन्, तुम् (तुकाम् तुमनस्), अनीय, य, तव्य, तवत् (तवन् तवति), त्वा, ति, क्विप्, अम् (ण), अत्, आन / मान

Like the letters in the alphabet, the Devanagari are systematized into columns and terms according to common parameters, and the verb roots of Sanskrit are divided into groups according to the similarity of parameters:

- 10 gan (by conjugation method);

- to set सेट् and anitic अनिट् according to the infix "and", which appears or not during word formation and conjugation;

- thematic and amatic according to the conjugation method (adding infix "a" when conjugating),

- into three types: atmanepadi (आत्मनेपदम्), parasmaipadi (परस्मैपदम्) and ubhaypadi (उभयपदम्) by the recipient of the verb ^[30] .

Prefixes

In Sanskrit 22 prefixes. Prefixes together with the root form the basis, which can form either nouns, participles and adjectives by adding primary suffixes, or verbs by modifying the basis and adding endings according to the verb conjugation rules.

Prefixes change the value of the root and its properties ^[30] .

Basal Declination

Nouns, adjectives, participles, numerals, and pronouns in Sanskrit lean in eight cases and three numbers (singular, dual, and plural). A noun is formed by combining a verbal root with a primary suffix, the resulting form is called stem, or stem . In order to use a word in speech, the base receives the end of the corresponding case and number.

The main table of case endings of words in Sanskrit:

The basics lean on the modified endings from this table. There are 17 karant-consonants on which the basis (च् ज् त्‌ थ् ध् द् प् भ् भ् न् म् ह् य् र् व् श् ष् स् स्) can end, and 10 karant-vowels (औ ओ ऐ ऋ ऊ उ ई इ आ अ). Quarantine - the letter on which the base ends. Each quarantine has its own declination nuances for this table (the terminations vary relative to the main table).

Cases in Sanskrit answer the following questions:

1. nominative case ( Nominativus ) - the subject ( who does? );
2. accusative case ( Accusativus ) - an object ( on what effect does it have? );
3. instrumental ( Instrumentalis ) - tool ( with what does it do? );
4. dative case ( Dativus ) - give forever, not for a while (to whom? );
5. sedative ( Ablativus ) - the cause of the action ( whence? from what );
6. genitive ( Genetivus ) - connection with the object ( whose? );
7. local case ( Locativus ) - place of action ( where? ). The local case is used with the roots “to love,” “trust,” an example: my love is in you .
8. the vocative case ( Vocativus ) is the one to whom it is addressed ^[31] .

Verbs

Verbs in Sanskrit are divided into groups:

- to transitive and intransitive (transitional and intransitive) - by the presence of the object of the action (for example, “read a book” - the object of the action is, “live” - the object of the action is not);

- for three types: atmanepadi (आत्मनेपदम्,) parasmaypadi (परस्मैपदम्) and ubhaypadi (उभयपदम्) by the recipient of the verb. In atmanepadi, the beneficiary is the subject of action, in parasmaipadi is an unknown other subject, in ubhaypadi both options are possible.

Times

The times are divided according to the type of conjugation into the Sarvadhatu system (present, past simple, imperative, opative) and the Arthadhatu system (simple future, future possible, perfect, aorist, blessing, conditioning). The imperative, optational, conditioning and blessing mood are not, in fact, times, but moods. Sarvadhatu differs from Atkhadhatu by the general rules of root changes in the times included in the system.

Western and Eastern tradition speaks of a verb in Sanskrit in different terms. For example, the grammar of Sanskrit is divided into Atmanepadi (translation: “a word for itself” ) and Parasmaipadi (translation: “a word for another” ). The meaning that Sanskrit grammar puts into these two terms: atmanepadi verbs are actions committed for oneself (for the author of the action), parasmaipadi verbs are actions that are done for other people. That is, the term describes the beneficiary of the action. ^[32]

Western grammar has translated the term as active (parasmaipad) and medium (atmanepada) pledges. ^[33]

The verb of any tense and inclination is formed from the root by two operations: forming the basis of tense or inclination and adding to the basis of personal endings of time or inclination.

Present

वर्तमानकालः (laṭ.) Is the name of the time in the grammar of Sanskrit ^[32] , praesens (pr.) Is a Latin term adopted by Western linguistics.

Personal endings of present tense verbs for thematic ganas (in iast):

The basis of the present tense (as well as of all times Sarvadhata)

The fundamentals of the present tense are formed differently for different roots. The roots are divided into 10 gan according to the principle of forming the base. Ghana is divided into two parts thematic (the base ends with the letter “a”, the term “subject” is from Greek grammar) and amatic (there is no letter “a” at the end of the base).

Themed Ghana

I ghana: root in guna degree + infix "अ". Example: √ भू; guna root + अ + ति = भवति.

Exceptions - some of the roots of this ghana are significantly modified at the basis of the present tense: √ - गच्छ्, √ - इच्छ्, √ - पश्य्, √ - पिब्, √ - तिष्ठ्. About 1000 roots in this ghana.

IV ghana: root + infix "य". Example: √ + य + ति = नृत्यति.

Ghana VI : root + infix "a". Example: √ + अ + ति = लिखति

X Ghana: the root in the degree of guna or vriddhi + infix "अय". Example: √ चुर्; guna root + अय + ति = चोरयति.

Athematic Ghana

Ghana II: the ending is added to the unchanged root: there is no infix. Example: √अस् + ति = अस्ति.

Ghana III: doubling of the root. Example: √दा + √दा + ति = ददाति.

V ghana : infix न् (उ) inside the root. Example: √युज् + नु + ते = युङ्क्ते.

VII ghana: infix न inside the root. Example: √भिद् + न + ति = भिनत्ति.

VIII ghana : infix. Example: √कृ + उ + ति = करोति.

IX ghana: infix ना, nasal fall out, samparasaran, Example: √ ज्ञा know. ^[32]

In examples 3rd person singular, present.

The Sanskrit syntax is the most complex and different from the languages ​​derived from it, part of Sanskrit. The syntax is complicated by samas: complex words formed from several nouns, adjectives, participles, numerals, pronouns that are united by the meaning. Words in Samasa lose their case, generic and numeric ending, which complicates the translation, they are called basics (root plus suffix, infix, prefix). A compound word may consist of different types of samas.

Grammar emit the following types of samas:

tatpurusha (तत्पुरुष) is a frequently occurring samasa. May consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, participles. Translation begins with the last word - it is basic. “Tatpurusha” is an example of the term itself, literal translation: “his servant”, in the Russian syntax: “his servant”. It may consist of several bases, each of the first subordinate to the following.

karmadharaya (कर्मधारय) - a subspecies of tatpurusha samasy, in which all the basics were originally in the same case. The first element (adjective, participle or adverb) defines the second element.

bahubrikhi (bakhuvrikhi) (बहुव्रीहि) - an adjective formed from two bases, and several more meaningful words (noun, pronoun and verb) are always omitted:

bahu - many vrihi - rice, literal translation: multi-drawing, full translation in Russian syntax: that person who has a lot of rice.

Dwandwa (द्वन्द्व) - samasa, which is formed by listing homogeneous concepts, gets a number by the number of members (if two is dual, if three and more is plural). translation - two and two.

dvigu (द्विगु) is a subspecies of tatpurushasamasa, in which the first base is a numeral describing the second base, the translation “dvigu”: two cows. Samarahara dvandva is a subspecies of dvandva samasy of collective value (then the samasy will have a single number) ^[34]

avyabhava (अलुक्) is an unknowable compound word, an adjective, formed with the participation of unknowable particles (adverbs, unions, numerals) and inclined words.

alūksamasa (अलुक्) - samasa, in which words do not lose the case ending.

Not only in the case of Samasa, Sanskrit words are merged, words also merge according to the sandh rules (mutual influence) of the final and initial letters on each other. For example, if one word ends in a consonant, and the second begins in a vowel, then the two words will merge into one in writing and pronunciation. But this is not samasa, since case and personal endings will not be lost. ^[35]

History of study in Europe and the world

In the 17th century, the German missionary Heinrich Roth made a major contribution to the study of Sanskrit. He lived in India for many years. In 1660, he finished his book in Latin, Grammaticca linguae Sanscretanae Brachmanum Indiae Orientalis . After Heinrich Roth returned to Europe, excerpts from his works and lectures were published, but his main work on the Sanskrit grammar was never published (the manuscript is still kept at the National Library in Rome).

The study of Sanskrit in Europe began from the end of the 18th century , in 1786 it was discovered for Europe by William Jones ^[36] (before that Sanskrit was described by the French Jesuit Curde in 1767 and by the German missionary Hanksleden , but their works were published after the works of William Johns) . At the beginning of the 19th century, acquaintance with Sanskrit played a decisive role in the creation of comparative historical linguistics ^[37] . German linguist A. Schleicher considered Sanskrit the most ancient Indo-European language ^[38] .

Sir William Jones said the following words about Sanskrit at the meeting of the Asian Society in Calcutta on February 2, 1786:

Currently, the academic environment for studying Sanskrit is localized worldwide. Every three years, the takes place in one of the largest universities in the world. In 2018, 600 speakers spoke at the congress, thousands of listeners listened to them ^[39] .

History of Study in Russia

In Russia, the study of Sanskrit was associated with the activities of linguistic scholars of St. Petersburg and Moscow and developed in the linguistic direction, which was promoted by the publication of so-called Petersburg dictionaries (large and small) in the 2nd half of the 19th century. " These dictionaries created an era in the study of Sanskrit ... They formed the basis of Indological science for a whole century ... ^[40] " The author of one of the Sanskrit textbooks was prof. F. I. Knower (his "Textbook of the Sanskrit language" was published in 1907, reprint: 2001).

An outstanding contribution to the study of Sanskrit was made by Dr. Vladimir A. Kochergina , Professor of Moscow State University , the creator of the Sanskrit-Russian Dictionary and the author of the Sanskrit Textbook. The outstanding Sanskrit scholars T. Elizarenkova, Vl. Wrote manuals and studies on Sanskrit. Toporov, A. A. Zaliznyak.

In 1871, the famous article by DI Mendeleev “ Periodic law for chemical elements” appeared. In it, Mendeleev gave the periodic system essentially in its modern form and predicted the discovery of new elements , which he called in the Sanskrit style “ ekabor ”, “ ekaaluminium ” and “ ekasilitsiem ” (from the Sanskrit eka “one”) and left for them in the table “ empty "places ^[41] . Mendeleev was a friend of the Sanskrit scholar Bötlingka , who at that time was preparing for publication the 2nd edition of his work on Panini ^[42] . According to the American linguist Paul Kriparsky , Mendeleev gave Sanskrit names to “missing” elements in order to express his recognition of the ancient Indian Sanskrit grammar ^[43] . Kriparsky also notes the great similarity between the periodic table of elements and Panini 's Siva Sutras . According to Kriparsky, Mendeleev made his discovery as a result of a search for the "grammar" of chemical elements ^[44] .

• International Sanskrit transliteration alphabet
• List of Russian-speaking Sanskritologists
• Indian-Russian practical transcription
• A list of words with the same root in Sanskrit and Russian, the author is prof. Zaliznyak A. A.

• Hilferding, AF On the affinity of the Slavic language with Sanskrit . - SPb. : Type of. Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1853. - 288, VI p.
• Ivanov V.V. , Toporov V.N. Sanskrit. - M .: Oriental Literature Publishing House , 1960. - 134 p. - ( Languages ​​of foreign East and Africa ).
• Kochergina V.A. The initial course of Sanskrit. M .: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR , 1956.
• Kochergina V.A. Sanskrit-Russian Dictionary: about 30,000 words / Ed. V.I. Kalyanova . With the appendix "Grammar Sketch of Sanskrit" A. A. Zaliznyak . - 2nd ed., Corr. and add. - M .: The Russian language , 1987. - 944 p. - 4250 copies
• Adelung F. On the similarity of the Sanskrit language with Russian / Translated from French Pavel Freygang .. - SPb: Imperial Printing House, 1811. - 20 p.
• Knauer F.I. Textbook of the Sanskrit language Leipzig. 1907. 343 p.

• SanDic - Free Online / Offline Sanskrit Dictionary ~ 200,000 Words
• Textbooks and articles about Sanskrit and other languages
• Sanskrit-Russian / Russian-Sanskrit dictionary online approx. 50,000 words
• Grammatical Sketch of Sanskrit
• About the language of ancient India Lecture by Academician Andrei Zaliznyak on the website Elements.ru
• Academic Courses on Sanskrit Around The World
• Sanskrit Alphabet in Devanagari, Gujarati, Bengali, and Thai scripts
• Sanskrit Documents
• Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon
• It is a list of the languages ​​of the Indian languages.
• Sanskrit Self Study by Chitrapur Math
• An Analytical Cross Referenced Sanskrit Grammar By Lennart Warnemyr