Cinema of Nigeria

The Nigerian film industry is usually denoted by the word "Nollywood" by analogy with American Hollywood and Indian Bollywood ^{[5] [6] [7] [8]} . For the first time this term was mentioned in an article in the American journal The New York Times in 2002 ^{[9] [10]} . Under Nollywood, it is customary to consider Nigerian cinema as a whole ^[6] , as well as Ghanaian English-language cinema, which is usually created in collaboration with Nigerian filmmakers or distributed by Nigerian companies. Films telling about the life of the African / Nigerian diaspora outside of Africa are also considered part of Nollywood ^[9] .

Nigerian nationalists dispute the correctness of the word "Nollywood", indicating that the definition was given by foreigners, which is a continuation of the tradition of white imperialism, and that the word "Nollywood" by default means secondary to Hollywood and Bollywood and implies the lack of identity of Nigerian cinema ^[7] .

Hausa-language cinema is often called Cannewood - after the name of the city of Kano ^[11] .

Movie making process

Nigerian films are most often shot in Yoruba with the participation of Yoruba actors, as these films are the most popular with viewers; English is next in popularity ^[12] . Films are also shot in the languages ​​of Hausa , Igbo , Itetsiri, Edo , Efik, Ijo, Urhobo and the other 300 languages ​​of the peoples of Nigeria ^[6] .

In the 2000s, on average, the quality of Nigerian cinema was very low, the scenes were shot on cheap cameras, and the film was edited using basic video recorders. The budget of such films was approximately $ 15,000, but it could reach as much as $ 1000 ^[11] . Favorite places for shooting films are Lagos , Enugu , the capital of the country Abuja and Asaba ^[13] . Nigerian cinema is also typically characterized by a lack of structure and professionalism. All films as of the 2000s were released immediately for home video . The film could be made in just a few days ^[7] , and roughly any person could act as a director ^[14] . Often the script was written right on the set, and all the scenes were shot in one day. Actors were required to wear their own clothes and apply makeup themselves ^{[15] [16] [17]} , and in case of force majeure, such as a power outage, the activity of terrorist groups, pressure from racketeers , filming was postponed or postponed ^{[ 11]} .

Often, the actors and the crew became victims of attacks by bandits who extorted money in exchange for “protection” ^[10] . By the 2010s, there was a tendency to significantly improve the quality and growth of budgetary funds for films being shot along with the growing popularity of cinema halls, together a whole layer of high-budget films with high cinematic quality appeared ^{[18] [19]} . Due to the growth of film production in Nigeria, many film crews prefer to travel to neighboring Ghana ^[20] , among other things, actors of Ghanaian origin began to take an increasing part in filming Nigerian films, almost crowding out Nigerian actors. Research by Nigerian Entertainment Today In 2013, they showed that Ghanaian actors accounted for about 60% of the actors of the new Nigerian films, and among 184 films shown on the Nigerian streaming website Nollytuned.com , at least 93 Ghanaian actors played the main characters ^[21] . Sometimes films are shot outside of Africa and have the collective name "Nollywood USA", since they are shot in Europe or the USA with the participation of Nigerian and Ghanaian actors to portray the life of the African diaspora and are intended for the Nigerian audience ^{[22] [23]} .

The predominant genres of Nigerian films are usually romance , drama , comedy and mysticism, there are practically no action games . Films often touch on themes of revenge, betrayal, hatred, rituals, politics, and so on ^[11] . Often in the plot there is a moral dilemma facing the main characters. The stories themselves are usually simple, but very dramatic: women cry and crave money; men are just as emotional and very vengeful ^[24] . Most films also resort to supernatural and religious themes, including black magic and the clash of modern religion with traditional beliefs . The appeal of heroes to black magic from desperate or selfish motives is a standard element of the plot. Some films promote Christian or Islamic beliefs. Others, however, also touch upon issues of religious diversity ^{[24] [25]} .

Other topics typically featured in Nigerian films include ritualistic acts, rivalry and conflict, sexual abuse, organized crime, prostitution, murder, greed, stinginess, impatience, jealousy, envy, pride, arrogance, infidelity, betrayal, occultism, the spread of AIDS , corruption and so on ^[11] and others. At the same time, in the plots of these films, bad events usually occur as a result of the actions of selfish characters craving power and money, and not as a result of random circumstances or mistakes made by the characters. Thus, there is a polarization of good and simple Nigerians who become victims of the greedy goals of greedy people who intend to get rich on someone else's happiness ^[26] .

Cannewood

Cannewood is a cinema in Hausa , Nigeria's largest Muslim people. Its peculiarity lies in the desire to imitate Indian cinema, therefore, knowledge of Hindi actors is the key to success. Unlike the cinema of the rest of the country, cannwood is not developing as widely as it is under strong pressure from the Islamic establishment in the person of local authorities and the conservative part of the population ^[27] . Among other things, the Islamic group Boko Haram may threaten the actresses with reprisal for “excessively immoral” behavior in films (immoral behavior may mean simple physical contacts between a man and a woman) ^[28] . In 2003, Governor Kano Ibrahim Shekarau launched a campaign against Canniwood. Many films were recognized as hostile to Islam, they were banned. In 2007, Cannewood films were banned one by one, actors and screenwriters were sent to jail, and books related to the film industry were burned at the stake because a cassette appeared on sale with a bed scene in which the popular actress participated ^{[ 11]} . Since the 2010s, amid general liberization, local authorities have refused to prosecute actors and directors, but the threat remains in the face of Islamic organizations ^[28] . Also, according to rumors, the terrorists from Boko Haram during their next prime minister temporarily cease their activities and go to the movies ^[11] .

The history of cinema in Nigeria goes back to the very history of European and American cinema , especially at the end of the 19th century with the spread of the kinetoscope ^[29] . Soon, at the beginning of the 20th century, they were replaced by more advanced movie display devices. The first films shown in Nigerian cinemas were American and European films and were intended for the white public, which was the highest, wealthiest class of Nigeria. The very first film was shown in the Glover Memorial Hall in Lagos from August 12 to 22, 1903 ^{[8] [25]} . In the same year, local politician Herbert Macaulay invited the Spanish studio Balboa and Company to Nigeria for an exhibition tour of silent films in Nigeria. ^{[25] [18]} .

Although the Balboa studio, based in Lagos, later closed, but she continued to show films in other West African countries, the success of her exhibition led European trader Stanley Jones to start showing films in the same Glover Memorial Hall starting in November 1903. of the year. This attracted many European movie publishers to Nigeria. The first film of this period was shown on August 3, 1904 and showed a documentary about King Elake ’s trip to England from Egba from Abeokuta ^{[25] [18]} .

Colonial era (end of XIX century - 1960)

Starting in the 1920s, colonial filmmakers began making films for the Nigeria domestic market. Similar films were shown mainly in mobile cinemas ^[9] . As of 1921, four cinemas operated in the center of Lagos , showing on average two films a week. Two more theaters worked in the peripheral areas of Oshodi-Isolo and Ebute Metta . At the same time, the cinema became very popular in Lagos, before the start of the next film session, a large crowd of young and old people gathered at the cinema's doors. The church also helped spread the culture of cinema, as Christian missionaries used cinemas for their religious propaganda. ^[25]

The first Nigerian film, "Flattery" ( Eng. Palaver ), directed by Joffrey Barkas was released in 1926, it is also the first film where Nigerian actors played the main characters ^{[30] [31]} . The film was shot in the villages of Surah and Angas residents in the modern states of Bauchi and Plateau , in northern Nigeria, and tells the story of a rivalry between a British district officer and a pewter miner . The conflict eventually escalates into war ^{[30] [31]} . In the following decades, a number of other films were shot in Nigeria, the most famous of which is Sanders from the River ( Anders of the River ) British director Zoltan Korl with the participation of Nigerian actor Orlando Martins . Martins starred in such well-known Nigerian films as The Man from Morocco "(1945)," People of two worlds "(1946) and other tapes. This made Martins one of the first recognized Nigerian actors of his time ^{[8] [10]} .

At the turn of the 1930s and 1940s, cinemas became part of Lagos ’ public life, marking the creation of the first large commercial cinema chains with branches in strategic regions of the country. One of the first such companies was the West African Pictures Company, founded by Mr. S. Khalil, a representative of the Syrian diaspora in Lagos. He opened three new cinema chains - Rex Cinema in Metta's Ebute , Regal Cinema and Royal Cinema. Other popular cinema chains were Capitol Cinema, Casino Cinema, Kings Cinema, Central Cinema, Rialto Cinema, Corona Cinema, Odeon Cinema, Road House Cinema, Ikeja Arms Cinema and Glover Hall. In 1937, the colonial government established the “Censorship Council to resolve issues related to the creation and operation of movie theaters in the colony” ^[25] . However, in films of that era, African and Nigerian culture in particular was poorly or superficially represented. Including black actors who played a secondary or negative role, since the creation and distribution of films was controlled by foreigners and was intended primarily for the white public. True Nigerian theaters then could be considered theatrical nomadic performances Yoruba groups that arose at the turn of the 1930s and 1940s. The most famous of them were theatrical groups Agbegiho and Alarinho with the most famous actors among them - Duro Ladipo, Ishola Ogunmola, Lera Paimo, Owin Adehabi and others ^{[13] [32]} .

At the turn of the 1940s and 1950s, films with more Nigerian content began to be shown in cinemas ^[13] , in an effort to “Africanize” film production, the Nigerian Film Agency for the decentralization of colonial film production was established ( Eng. Nigerian Film Unit, Coonial Film Unit ) ^[9] . Over the next decade, The Colonial Film Unit, using mobile cinemas, demonstrated educational films about education and health to the local population, and the Colonial Film Unit produced newsreels of short documentaries telling about celebrations and colonial achievements for domestic and foreign audiences ^[9] . In 1957, the first color film, Fincho , was made.

Golden Era (1950s - 1980s)

After Nigeria gained independence in 1960, the cinema business expanded rapidly, new cinemas appeared. However, there has been a significant influx of American, Indian, Chinese and Japanese films; movie posters from these countries were everywhere in the theater halls, and actors from these industries became very popular in Nigeria. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the production of films for screening in movie theaters gradually increased, especially in Western Nigeria. Filmmakers were former theater directors such as Hubert Ogund , Ola Balogun , Moses Olaya , Jab Adu, Isola Ogunsola, Ladi Ladebo, Sanya Dosumu and Sadik Baleva ^{[13] [33]} . The first fully commercial Nigerian films shot on celluloid film were also made by these directors in the 1960s ^[34] .

In 1972, the Nigerian president Yakubu Govon , worried about the influx of foreign cinema into Nigeria, issued a decree on the nationalization of cinema, which required the transfer of about 300 cinemas in the country to foreign ownership of the state. As a result of this policy, Nigerians began to take an increasingly active part in creating cinemas and cinema in the management, new Nigerian playwrights, screenwriters and film producers appeared. Popular Nigerian literature and local theatrical works found their film adaptations ^[32] . The oil boom of 1973-1978 made a huge contribution to the growth of cinematic culture in Nigeria. The presence of foreign investment has led to the construction of a number of new cinemas. In 1976, the National Art Theater in was built in Lagos for 5,000 seats in the commercial district of Surulere . The building has two halls, each of which accommodates more than 700 people ^[35] . The film business created many jobs, and also played an important social role, as Nigerians visited cinemas for recreation and entertainment ^[36] . Improving purchasing power in Nigeria has also allowed a wide range of citizens with sufficient incomes to spend them on movies and home TVs ^[13] .

Broadcasting in Nigeria began in the 1960s and received great government support in the early years of its existence. By the mid-1980s, each state of Nigeria had its own radio station. The law limited the broadcast of foreign content on television, so the producers in Lagos began to create many local and popular theater productions ^[13] . Many of them were also distributed on video tapes, thus giving impetus to the development of the video trade. In the late 1980s, film production began to plummet and most Nigerian film producers switched to television. Постепенный упадок золотой эры нигерийского кинематографа объясняется несколькими факторами, в том числе снижением стоимости национальной валюты найры , отсутствие финансовой и маркетинговой поддержки, стандартных киностудий и производственного оборудования, частые правительственные программы структурных перестроек из-за военных диктатур, а также неопытность многих киноделов. Резкий упадок кинокультуры привел к тому, что некоторые из существующих кинотеатров были приобретены религиозными организациями и превращены в церкви; другие были просто закрыты. В начале 1990-х годов лишь несколько кинотеатров все еще работали, и все были закрыты до 1999 года ^{[36] [37]} .

Эпоха домашнего кино (1980-е — 2010-е)

Появление рынка видеофильмов в Нигерии восходит к 1980-м годам, когда быстрый рост набирало производство телевизионных фильмов и сериалов. Фильм ужасов «Злая встреча» ( англ. Evil Encounter ) 1980 года выпуска режиссёра Джими Одумосу, стал первой картиной, созданной непосредственно для показа по телевидению и на видео-кассетах. Фильм стал показателем того, на сколько данный вид дистрибуции оказался прибыльным. Фильм широко рекламировался ещё до того, как был показан по телевидению, и в результате на следующее утро улицы Лагоса были завалены видео-копиями записанной передачи. Сообщалось, что фильм стал мгновенным хитом на рынке Алаба в коммерческом районе, который позже стал центром распространения видео, в том числе и пиратских. После данных событий, распространение копий фильмов и сериалов на местных уличных рынках стало обычным явлением в южно-нигерийских городах ^[13] . Данный метод распространения заинтересовал и производителей с дистрибьюторами, которые пытались вытянуть киноиндустрию из кризисного положения, которая на момент 80-х годов находилась в состоянии упадка. Первым фильмом, снятым для видео, стал «Сосо Меджи» ( англ. Soso Meji ) продюсера Аде Аджибой. Фильм также демонстрировался в нескольких доступных кинотеатрах того времени. Другим блокбастером того времени был «Папа Аджаско» 1984 года. За три дня прибыль от продаж составила 61 000 найр (около $21,5 млн по курсу 2015 года) ^[11] . Вскоре, в 1989 году Аладе Аромире продюсировал фильм «Экун» ( англ. Ekun ) для видео, который был показан в Национальном театре Иганму ^{[8] [38]} .

Однако традиционно годом основания видео-Нолливуда считается 1992-й год, когда продавец электроники Кеннет Ннебуе за месяц отснял фильм « Жизнь в трущобе » ( англ. Live in Bondage ) с бюджетом в $12000. По сюжету, наркоман вступает в таинственную секту, убивает свою жену, получив неслыханные богатства, но призрак убитой жены преследовал его всю жизнь. Тираж фильма составил около миллиона копий ^{[11] [39]} .

Также существовал прокат фильмов в видеосалонах. Особенно часто встречались передвижные видеосалоны, сеансы могли устраиваться как на открытом воздухе, так и в домах и ресторанах. Публика сидела на лавках и стульях, а иногда прямо на земле/полу. Постеры для фильмов, прокатывавшихся в видеосалонах часто рисовались местными умельцами на тканых мешках из-под муки. Сегодня такие постеры являются предметом коллекционирования и рассматриваются как произведения наивного искусства . Помимо Нигерии, подобная практика встречалась и в соседней Гане ^[40] .

По состоянию на 2004 год в Нигерии производилось не менее четырех-пяти фильмов каждый день. Нигерийские фильмы уже доминировали на телевизионных экранах по всему африканскому континенту и, соответственно, в африканских диаспорах ^[20] . Актеры фильма также стали звёздами на всем континенте, а нигерийские фильмы значительно повлияли на культуру во многих африканских странах: от способа одевания до речи и использования нигерийских сленговых выражений ^[24] . Это было связано с тем, что нигерийские фильмы рассказывали «родственные» африканцам истории, которые заставляли иностранные фильмы пылится на полках видеомагазинов, даже если они стоили гораздо дешевле ^[41] .

По данным 2015 года «Кооператива кинематографистов Нигерии», каждый фильм в Нигерии имел потенциальную аудиторию в 15 миллионов человек в Нигерии и около 5 миллионов за пределами Нигерии ^[42] . В одночасье нигерийская индустрия стала третьей по величине производителем фильмов в мире после индийской и американской. Тем не менее Нолливуд нельзя назвать коммерческой киноиндустрией по сравнению с другими крупными кинематографическими центрами мира, общая стоимость кинопромышленности Нигерии составляла 250 миллионов долларов США, а подавляющее большинство кинокартин были сделаны на небольшие бюджетные средства. По состоянию на 2007 год, при общем количестве 6 841 зарегистрированных видеосалонов и примерно 500 000 незарегистрированных, предполагаемый доход от продаж и проката фильмов в штате Лагос оценивался в 804 миллионов найр ($5 миллионов) в неделю, что составляет примерно 33,5 миллиардов найр ($209 миллионов) для штата Лагос в год. На рынке Алаба продавалось приблизительно по 700 000 дисков в день, при этом общий доход от кинопромышленности в Нигерии оценивался в 522 миллиарда найр ($3 миллиарда) в год, а объем вещательного контента оценивался в 250 миллиардов найр ($1,6 миллиарда) ^{[8] [32] [20] [43]} .

На пике популярности домашних видео, примерно в 2008 году, нигерийская киноиндустрия стала второй крупнейшей в мире по количеству созданных фильмов, уступая только болливуду ^[44] . Только в месяц выпускалось около 200 фильмов. Тем не менее, к этому моменту Нолливуд деградировал в «слепую» индустрию, подконтрольную несколькими людьми, не имеющими дело с киноискусством и созданием фильмов, а также из-за процветающего пиратства ^{[45] [46]} . Борьба с пиратством сопровождалась с рядом серьёзных и проблем, после прикрытия Алабского картеля ( англ. Alaba cartel), which controlled 90% of the illegal CD market, most of its investors found other ways to distribute pirated copies. However, there has been a downward trend in the popularity of home videos. The reasons were the government’s refusal to provide support and financing, the lack of a formal and effective local film distribution infrastructure and the increase in production costs in Nigeria ^[47] .

New Nigerian Cinema (2000s - Present)

After a gradual decline in interest in buying home videos, at the beginning of the XXI century there is a gradual revival of the Nigerian movie theater in a similar format that it existed in the era of golden cinema. In Nigeria, movie theaters, originally designed for the middle and upper class, have gradually begun to gain popularity. The first company to launch a network of modern cinemas, mainly in the affluent areas of large cities in Nigeria, was the Silverbird Group " ^{[13] [37]} . In 2004, Silverbird Galleria launched its cinema network on Victoria Island in Lagos. Silverbird Galleria is a large shopping center with an upscale cinema and various retail outlets where trade events are held. It also motivates people to visit an institution where they can afford other kinds of entertainment besides watching a movie. This could also be the reason for the decline of cinemas in the golden age, since they were all in an unprofitable state ^[37] .

Silverbird cinemas have begun showing Nigerian films with high-quality production, resulting in lower interest in low-quality products. The first such film was a picture in the Yoruba language - "Irapada" (2006) directed by Kunle Afolayan shown in the Silverbird Galleria shopping center . The film was very successful and as a result, the company opened several more cinemas in Lagos and other cities in Nigeria. Soon after the creation of the Silverbird cinemas, the Genesis Deluxe and Ozone Cinemas cinema chains were launched, which created competition in the film business. Much later, in the 2010s, FilmHouse opened its network, which led to the emergence of more cinemas in the country and already outside rich areas ^[48] .

The Nigerian government has allocated several grants to support quality content in Nigerian films. In 2006, the Government of Nigeria launched the Project Nollywood project together with Ecobank . As part of this project, Nigerian filmmakers were provided with предостав 100 million ($ 781,000) to produce high-quality films and finance the Naira multi-million dollar distribution network throughout the country ^[43] .

In 2010, the administration of President Goodluck Jonathan established the чества 30 billion Industry and Creativity Entertainment Fund. ($ 200 million), financed by the Industrial Bank (BOI) in conjunction with the Nigerian Export-Import Bank (NEXIM). This grant, although called a by-product of Project Nollywood, was intended for the entire Nigerian creative arts and entertainment sector. The purpose of the grant was to help more Nigerian filmmakers in training, financing, and creating the necessary infrastructure for the film industry ^{[49] [50]} . In 2013, a new grant of 3 billion naira ($ 20 million) was again awarded exclusively for the development of Nollywood, in particular, for the production of high-quality films and for sponsors of film producers for training in film schools ^{[51] [52]} . In 2015, the Bank of Industry launched another NollyFund program with the aim of providing financial support in the form of loans for film producers ^{[53] [54]} .

The popular thriller film of 2009 "Figurine" , as a rule, is considered a turning point that attracted the attention of the media to the revolution of the "New Nigerian Cinema" ^[45] . The film expected commercial success in Nigeria and good critical reviews; it was also shown at international film festivals ^[11] . The 2010 film "Ihe" Director Chinizu Anyahina surpassed the Statuette in box office in Nigeria and maintained that position until 2014, when she was outstripped in box office by Half the Yellow Sun , directed by Baia Bandele. In 2016, “The Wedding Party” was the most profitable film Kemi Adetiba ^{[55] [56]} .

By the end of 2013, revenues in the Nigerian film industry had already reached ₦ 1.72 trillion ($ 11 billion). As of 2014, the film industry was worth ₦ 853.9 billion ($ 5.1 billion), in third place after the United States and India. Kinoidustria accounted for 1.4% of the Nigeria economy, this was due to an increase in the number of high-quality films created and more formal methods for their distribution ^{[57] [58]} .

In contrast to the era of home video, films of a new Nigerian movie are usually of much better quality, for the creation of which they invested much more budgetary funds ^[59] . The cost of the A-tape varied already on average from 40 million ($ 250,000) to 120 million naira ($ 750,000). The duration of production of these films lasts from several months to several years, which differs significantly from films in video format, which are usually shot in a matter of days or weeks ^{[60] [61]} . Other notable improvements to the films of the new Nollywood include a better play of actors, greater scale of stories, versatility, cosmopolitanism in films, as opposed to soap melodramas in the era of video format. Many filmmakers of the new wave are young people at the beginning of their careers ^[62] . Nevertheless, the issue of copyright compliance and the prosperity of piracy is still a serious problem for the new Nigerian movie. The damage from piracy, according to studies of the Nigerian publication Business Day, amounted to 7.5 billion naira ($ 46 million) annually ^{[63] [64] [11]} .

In 2008, the Africa Movie Academy Awards (AMAA) was established by entrepreneur and film fan Chiome. The aim of this award is to distribute Nigerian films around the world ^[11] .

In 2009, UNESCO ranked Nollywood as the second largest film industry in the world after Indian cinema in terms of production ^[65] .

Africa

Since the 2000s, Nigerian films began to dominate on television screens throughout the African continent and, accordingly, among African diasporas ^{[66] [67]} . The names of Nigerian film actors have become common nouns throughout the continent ^[66] , and Nigerian films have a significant impact on culture in many African countries; from ways to dress to speech and the use of Nigerian slang ^[68] . The reason for the great popularity is that Nigerian films tend to touch on topics related and understandable to the African population, as a result, Africans prefer to watch low-cost Nigerian films to high-budget foreign films ^[69] .

The huge popularity of Nigerian cinema also provoked anger among conservatives and nationalists from other African countries with its consequences. For example, there have been reported cases where police in Ghana raided stores selling Nigerian films; According to them, “they are struggling not to be colonized by Nigerian films” ^{[68] [70]} . Several states have also introduced protectionist measures, some of which include the introduction of taxes for filmmakers who want to make films in these countries. In July 2010, Ghana began demanding $ 1,000 from Nigerian actors and $ 5,000 from producers and directors when visiting the country ^{[67] [71]} . The Democratic Republic of the Congo has also tried to ban Nigerian films. Jean Rush, a Niger indigenous art advocate, compared Nollywood to AIDS. He stated that Africa is “Nigerianized”, fearing that the whole continent will be gradually assimilated into Nigerian culture and lifestyle ” ^[67] .

Cinema of Nigeria is also widely represented by Ghanaian actors who spread the influence of Ghanaian culture through Nigerian cinema and contribute to the development of Ghanaian cinema. Outside viewers not from Nigeria or Ghana tend to confuse Nigerian and Ghanaian actors ^{[72] [73] [74]} .

Europe

The Nigerian film industry has its own large audience in the face of the African diasporas in Europe and especially Great Britain ^{[75] [76]} .