Russian economy

The table shows the main economic indicators for the years 1992–2017. Inflation less than 5% is indicated by the green arrow ^[32] .

Sectoral structure of the economy

Sectoral structure of gross value added in Russia (according to data for 2016) ^[33] :

• Agriculture , hunting and forestry - 4.5%
• Fishing , fish farming - 0.3%
• Mining and quarrying - 9.4%
• Manufacturing industry - 13.7%
• Production and distribution of electricity, gas and water - 3.1%
• Construction - 6.2%
• Trade - 15.9%
• Hotels and restaurants - 0.8%
• Transport and communications - 7.8%
• Financial activities - 4.4%
• Education - 2.6%
• Health and social services - 3.8%
• Other industries - 27.6%

Geographical structure of the economy

The structure of gross value added of Russia by federal districts (according to data for 2017): ^[34]

• Central Federal District - 34.9%
• Volga Federal District - 14.7%
• Ural Federal District - 14.3%
• North-West Federal District - 10.9%
• Siberian Federal District - 10.4%
• Southern Federal District - 7.2%
• Far Eastern Federal District - 5.2%
• North Caucasus Federal District - 2.4%

Among the subjects of the federation the largest in terms of gross product are Moscow , the Tyumen Region , St. Petersburg , the Moscow Region and the Krasnodar Territory . ^[34]

GDP

As a result of the economic reforms of the early 1990s, Russia's GDP decreased by half compared with the pre-reform period. Russia's share in world GDP in 1991 was 3.4%, and by 2001 it had fallen to 1%. By the end of the 20th century, Russia lost the advantage of a large-scale economy and, in terms of GDP (at purchasing power parity), moved from 5th (USSR in 1991) to 10th place in the world, and at the current market rate gave way to China, Mexico, Brazil, India ^[35] .

Since 2000, the situation has stabilized and the country's GDP began to grow steadily. Growth on all indicators was recorded until 2012, when overall growth declined and GDP began to steadily decline ^[35] .

According to the World Bank , in terms of GDP (by PPP) in 2016, Russia ranked 6th in the world ($ 3,397 billion) ^[36] . In terms of GDP (in nominal terms) - 12th place in the world ($ 1281 billion).

According to the Federal State Statistics Service , Russia's GDP in 2016 in nominal units amounted to 86,043 billion rubles. At constant prices in 2011, GDP amounted to 62,119 billion rubles. ^[37]

GDP per capita

According to the IMF , in terms of GDP (PPP) per capita in 2016, Russia ranked 47th in the world ^[38] . Since 1991, Russia's per capita GDP in PPP by 2014 has increased by 207% (see chart). In terms of GDP (in nominal terms) per capita in 2016, Russia ranked 67th in the world: it was $ 8,928 (the closest neighbors on the list: Venezuela - $ 9,258 and Brazil - $ 8,727) ^[39] .

1990s

In the 1990s, the country's economy experienced a deep recession, accompanied by a surge in inflation, a decline in investment , a shortage of goods, an increase in foreign debt , a barterization of the economy, a decrease in household income and many other negative phenomena. During the decade a number of economic reforms were carried out, including the liberalization of prices and foreign trade , mass privatization . One of the results of the reforms was the transition of the country's economy from planned to market .

In the 1990s, the level of taxation of individuals and legal entities in Russia was overestimated and, despite the constant tightening of tax legislation, enterprises engaged in massive tax evasion ^[40] . In the 1990s, the growth gap in the economic development of the regions of the country was also determined ^[41] .

2000s

In the Russian economy, GDP growth was observed (in 2000 - 10%, in 2001 - 5.1%, in 2002 - 4.7%, in 2003 - 7.3%, in 2004 - 7.2%, in 2005 - 6, 4%, in 2006 - 8.2%, in 2007 - 8.5%, in 2008 - 5.2%), industrial and agricultural production, construction, real incomes of the population ^[42] . There was a decrease in the proportion of the population living below the poverty level (from 29% in 2000 to 13% in 2007) ^{[43] [44]} . From 1999 to 2007, the production index of the processing industries grew by 77%, including the production of machinery and equipment - by 91%, textile and clothing production - by 46%, food production - by 64% ^[45] .

In the 2000s, the President of Russia V. V. Putin signed a number of laws that amended tax legislation: a flat income tax rate from individuals was set at 13%, the income tax rate was reduced to 24%, a regressive scale was introduced single social tax, canceled turnover taxes and sales tax , the total amount of taxes was reduced by 3 times (from 54 to 15) ^{[46] [47] [48] [49]} . In 2006, Deputy Minister of Finance of the Russian Federation Sergey Shatalov stated that during the period of tax reform, the tax burden decreased from 34-35% to 27.5%, and the tax burden was redistributed to the oil sector ^[49] . Tax reform also contributed to an increase in tax collection ^{[46] [50] [51] [52]} and stimulated economic growth ^{[50] [52] [53] [54] [55]} .

In October 2001, the new Land Code of the Russian Federation came into force, which secured the ownership of land (except for agricultural land) and defined the mechanism for its sale. In July 2002, the federal law “On the turnover of agricultural land” was signed, which authorized the sale and purchase of agricultural land ^[47] .

A number of other social and economic reforms were carried out: pension ( 2002 ), banking (2001–2004), monetization of benefits (2005), reform of labor relations, electric power industry and railway transport.

By July 1, 2006, the Russian ruble became convertible in current and capital transactions ^[56] .

The volume of GDP in 2005 amounted to 21,665.0 billion rubles, an increase of 6.4% over the previous year. The growth of industrial production in 2005 amounted to 4.0%, retail trade turnover - 12.0%, investment in fixed assets - 10.5%, freight turnover of transport - 2.6%. The consumer price index was 10.9%, the GDP deflator - 18.8%. The foreign trade turnover in 2005 amounted to $ 370.4 billion, the trade balance - $ 120.1 billion.

The volume of Russian GDP in 2006 exceeded 26 trillion rubles. Tax revenues transferred by the Federal Tax Service to the federal budget in 2006 amounted to 3000.7 billion rubles. (an increase of 19.7% compared with 2005). According to federal law of 01.12.2006 No. 197-ФЗ, the parameters of the federal budget for 2006 were finally approved in the following amount: expenses in the amount of 4,431.076 billion rubles, revenues in the amount of 6,170.484 billion rubles. Thus, the surplus of the federal budget for 2006 amounted to 1,739.408 billion rubles. Official inflation was 9%.

2007

Russian foreign exchange reserves set a new record - as of January 5, 2007, they amounted to $ 303.9 billion ^[57] . This ensured Russia the third place in this indicator in the world after China and Japan .

The volume of Russian GDP in 2007 amounted to 33,247.5 billion rubles in current prices ^[58] . According to GDP (PPP) in 2007, the Russian economy was in seventh place in the world in second place in Europe (a share of 3.2%) ^[59] .

GDP growth in 2007, according to Rosstat, in comparable prices was 8.5% ^[58] , and industrial production - 6.3% ^[60] , inflation for the year - 11.9% ^[61] . According to Rosstat ^[62] , foreign trade turnover in 2007 amounted to (in actual prices) $ 578.9 billion (123.7% compared to 2007), including exports - $ 355.5 billion (117.1% to 2007). year), imports - $ 223.4 billion (136.0% by 2007). The real ruble appreciation in the first 11 months of 2007 was 4.6% (against the dollar - 14.15%, against the euro - 4.2%) ^[63] .

The results of the Russian economy in 2007 showed an acceleration of growth compared to 2005–2006. At the same time, acceleration occurred against the background of reducing the impact of the fuel and energy sector on the economy, that is, growth was based not on high prices for energy resources, but on growth in investment and consumer demand, growth in construction, production of a wide range of products from the manufacturing industries.

In 2007, the growth rate of the Russian economy (8%) was the highest in recent years. At the end of this year, Russia entered the "seven" of the largest economies in the world, leaving behind Italy and France ^[64] .

2008—2009

The outbreak of the global economic crisis has not bypassed Russia. According to the World Bank , the Russian crisis of 2008 “began as a crisis of the private sector, triggered by excessive private sector borrowing in the face of a deep triple shock: on the part of the conditions of foreign trade, capital outflow and toughening of conditions of external borrowing” ^[65] .

For Russia, the crisis was expressed in the fall of the stock market, the depreciation of the Russian currency, the decline in industrial production, GDP, incomes, as well as unemployment. In May 2009, Russia's GDP fell by 11% compared to the same month last year. Exports for this month fell by 45% compared with May 2008, reaching $ 23.4 billion; imports decreased by 44.6% to $ 13.6 billion. The balance of trade decreased by 1.8 times ^[66] .

Anti-crisis measures of the government have demanded significant expenses. As of July 1, 2009, the foreign exchange reserves of the Central Bank amounted to $ 412.6 billion, a decrease of 27.5% compared with July 1, 2008 ($ 569 billion).

In the second half of 2009, the economic recession was overcome - in the third and fourth quarters of this year, Russia's GDP growth, taking into account seasonal factors, was 1.1% and 1.9%, respectively ^[67] . However, in 2009, Russia's GDP fell by 7.9% ^{[68] [69] [70]} .

In March 2010, a World Bank report noted that the losses of the Russian economy were lower than expected at the beginning of the crisis ^[71] . According to the World Bank, this was partly due to large-scale anti-crisis measures taken by the government ^[71] .

2010s

2010–2013

At the end of 2010, Russia's GDP growth was 4.5% ^[5] . Russia ranks 6th among the countries of the world in terms of GDP at PPPs ^[72] .

In 2011, Russia's GDP growth was 4.3% ^[5] . Investments in the Russian economy reached a record level of $ 370 billion / year in the last 20 years ^{[73] [73] [73]} . Inflation fell to a record low since the collapse of the USSR (6.6%) ^[74] .

From January 1, 2012, the Common Economic Space of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan began to work. On August 22 of the same year, Russia joined the World Trade Organization ^[75] .

At the end of 2012, the economy began to slow down and amounted to 3.3%, inflation - 6.6%. In total, in 2012, Russian industrial production increased by 2.6% (for comparison, in 2011 - by 4.7% ^[76] , in 2010 - by 8.2% ^[77] ).

In 2013, economic growth in Russia declined under the influence of structural problems and a decrease in investment activity ^{[78] [79]} . GDP growth was 1.3% ^[80] , inflation — 6.5% ^[81] , industrial growth — 0.8% ^[82] . Capital outflow from Russia in 2013 amounted to $ 61 billion ^[83] .

year 2014

In 2014, there was a further slowdown in the economy, GDP grew by 0.7% ^{[84] [85] [86] [87]} . In 2014, the rate of inflation increased sharply (to 11.4%) ^[88] , the growth of industrial production was 1.7% ^[89] . Capital outflow from Russia in 2014 amounted to a record $ 151.5 billion ^[83] . For the first time in recent years, real incomes of the population decreased (by 0.7%) ^[90] .

Since November 2014, the Central Bank of Russia has moved to a floating exchange rate policy , abolishing regular currency interventions . ^[91]

In December 2014, with the collapse of the ruble against the US dollar and the euro , the monetary and socioeconomic crisis ^[92] began in Russia, caused by the rapid decline in world oil prices , as well as the introduction of economic sanctions against Russia due to events in Ukraine .

2015

In 2015, the Russian economy entered with the same problems: declining oil prices and the preservation of economic sanctions ^[93] .

The weakening of the ruble was one of the main factors for increasing inflation and, as a result, contributed to a decrease in real disposable incomes of the population, long-term cooling of consumer demand ^[94] , economic recession, growth in the level of poverty ^[95] and decrease in real incomes of the population ^[94] .

At the end of 2015, Russia's GDP decreased (by 2.8%), for the first time after the 2008–2009 crisis ^[84] . Inflation rose to 12.9% ^[96] . Real incomes of the population decreased by 3.2% ^[90] . At the same time, the outflow of capital decreased by almost 3 times (to $ 58 billion) ^[97] .

Since 2015, the Central Bank of Russia has moved to the inflation targeting regime. The goal was to reduce inflation to 4% per annum by the end of 2017. ^[98]

2016 year

The year 2016 began with the weakening and extreme volatility of the ruble exchange rate amid falling oil prices. In January, the exchange rate of the ruble against the dollar several times updated the minimum values ​​from the so-called “ black Tuesday ” of December 2014 ^[99] , but subsequently stabilized at the 2015 level.

Since the second quarter of 2016, the Russian economy has moved to growth. ^[100] At the end of the year, GDP growth was 0.3%. Industry also moved to growth — the industrial production index grew by 1.3% ^[101] . The growth of agriculture accelerated ^[102] . The processes of import substitution , a good harvest of crops and a number of other factors contributed to a sharp drop in the rate of inflation — consumer price growth was 5.4% (a record low for the entire post-Soviet period) ^[103] . Capital outflow decreased to the lowest level in recent years ($ 15 billion) ^{[97] [104]} . At the same time, the incomes of the population continued to decline (the decline was about 6%) ^{[90] [103]} . According to the Research Institute of Rosstat, in 2016, 10.7% of hired employees of enterprises and organizations in Russia had a salary below one living wage of the working-age population, below 3 living wages - 75% ^{[105] [106]} .

2017 year

In 2017, Russia's GDP growth accelerated to 1.7% ^{[107] [108] [109]} . Inflation declined to a record low ^[110] . The situation in the labor market has improved - the unemployment rate dropped to the lowest level since mid-2014, real wages increased, and there was a decline in real incomes of the population (by 1.2% in January-September 2017) ^[111] .

The volumes of the Reserve Fund and the National Wealth Fund increased (in total by $ 4.6 billion in January-August 2017) ^[112] .

According to a survey conducted by the NAFI center, over the past two years, the proportion of Russians who consider inflation to be very high has decreased significantly from 66% in 2015 to 38% in 2017. At the same time, the number of those who rate it as moderate has increased (from 28 % to 42%) or insignificant (from 4% to 12%). The Russians experienced a decrease in the real level of inflation (as of December 2017, Inflation fell to 3.5%). The greatest changes were noted in the prices of utility bills, gasoline and dairy products - 72% of respondents each reported an increase in prices in these categories. ^[113]

2018

In 2018, economic growth accelerated to 2.3% (the largest increase in the last 6 years). Inflation rates rose to 4.3%, being just above the target value of the Central Bank of Russia at 4%. The federal budget was for the first time in recent years executed with a surplus. There was an increase in real incomes of the population (by 1%) and real wages (by 9%). ^{[114] [115] [116] [117] [118]}

2019 ^[119]

Since January 1, 2019, several laws that concern tariffs and taxes have come into force; Thus, VAT increased from 18 to 20%, housing and utilities tariffs increased by 1.7%, excise taxes on tobacco products increased by 10%.

By 2019, Russia's position in the World Bank’s ease of doing business ranking has improved significantly (to 31 out of 120 places in 2009). In April 2019, Vladimir Putin set Russia's goal as the target of Russia's 20th place in the rating by 2024. ^[120]

Fuel and energy complex

Oil industry

Russia is among the top three countries leading in oil production.

High external demand and relatively high prices for Russian oil stimulate the development of production and an increase in exports. At the same time, the domestic market is growing more slowly than the world one, and domestic Russian oil prices are lower than the world ones (data from the beginning of the 2010s). The oil industry is the largest supplier of foreign currency to the Russian budget ^[122] .

There are different estimates of profitable for the extraction of oil reserves in the country: from 18.8 to 22.2 billion tons (95% are located on land, the rest - on the shelf). According to this indicator, Russia ranks second in the world after Saudi Arabia. At the current level of production of reserves should be enough until the end of the XXI century ^[123] .

Oil reserves in the country are uneven. Most of them are located within Western Siberia (in Khanty-Mansiysk and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug). Also, oil is produced in the Tomsk and Novosibirsk regions, in the Urals (in Bashkortostan, Udmurtia, Orenburg region, Perm region), in the Volga region (Tatarstan, Kalmykia, Samara, Saratov, Volgograd, Astrakhan, Ulyanovsk, Penza regions). In the Northern economic region, oil production is carried out in the Republic of Komi and Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Explored reserves in the Kaliningrad region. In the North Caucasus, mining is carried out in Chechnya and Dagestan, as well as in the Krasnodar Territory, in Eastern Siberia in the Krasnoyarsk Territory and Irkutsk Region, in the Far East in Yakutia and on Sakhalin ^[123] . In recent years, extensive oil resources have been commissioned in Eastern Siberia. In particular, in 2009 industrial production began at the Vankor field in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, with reserves of 3.5 billion barrels ^{[73] [124]} .

In 2016, oil and gas condensate production in Russia reached a record high of 547.5 million tons. The main contribution from the growth was made by the “new wave” of deposits (+17.5 million tons), which blocked the decline in production at the old fields. However, most of the new fields are subject to MET and export duties. The privileged production volume increased in 2016 to 197.9 million tons, amounting to 39.5% of the country's oil production. In monetary terms, the amount of state support to the oil industry amounted to more than 400 billion rubles. ^[125]

Due to the fall in prices for hydrocarbon raw materials, the share of the oil and gas industry in budget revenues decreased significantly: from 32.6% in 2014 to 22.4% in 2016. Most of the revenue from the growth of oil prices goes to the state. In this regard, the federal budget is the first to suffer from the decline in oil prices, while the financial performance of companies changes only slightly. In 2016, Urals oil fell to $ 41.7 per barrel and oil budget revenues decreased by 0.6 trillion rubles, while oil companies' EBITDA remained unchanged ^[126] .

Gas industry

Russia ranks first in the world in explored reserves of natural gas. The main feature of the gas industry is the concentration of reserves in large and very large fields. They account for more than 90% of all production. There are gas, gas condensate and complex gas composition of the field. Along with natural gas, gas condensate, hydrogen sulfide and strategically important helium are often produced, therefore gas condensate plants often work at production sites. Natural and dry associated petroleum gas is used as a fuel in power plants, in municipal services, as a raw material for the production of fertilizers, and in other industries ^[127] .

Most of the country's gas reserves are located in Western Siberia, mainly in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District. The most famous fields under development are: Bovanenkovskoye, Yamburgskoye, Medvezhye, Komsomolskoye, Kharampurskoye, Nadymskoye. In the Volga region, the unique Astrakhan gas condensate field is allocated with large reserves, in the Urals - the Orenburg field. A unique Kovykta field (Irkutsk Region) was discovered in Eastern Siberia and significant reserves were discovered in the Vankor, Kuyumbinsky, Yurubcheno-Tokhomsky fields. In the Far East, the Srednevilyuisky, Srednebotuobinskoe, Chayadinskoe deposits in Yakutia have the largest reserves, and the Lena and Arkutun-Daginskoe deposits on Sakhalin. There are no large gas reserves in other parts of the country ^[128] .

In the field of gas production, the Yamal resources are being developed, the total volume of which exceeds 30 trillion m³. In the autumn of 2012, the Bovanenkovskoye oil and gas condensate field was commissioned in Yamal with reserves of over 4 trillion m³ ^{[129] [130]} .

Another not unimportant aspect of the gas industry is the production of liquefied natural gas. Today, Russia accounts for up to 6% ^{[131] of} global LNG production. The state plans to increase it to 15% by 2025, launching several projects into operation. For the time being, two large-scale plants are operating (with a total capacity of up to 26.7 million tons) - Sakhalin-2, the controlling stake of which belongs to Gazprom, and Yamal LNG, which is the NOVATEK project. Up to 2025 it is planned to put into operation: “Arctic LNG-2”, “Baltic LNG”, “Kriogaz-Vysotsk”, “LNG Gorskaya” and the regasification terminal in the Kaliningrad region, as well as two small-tonnage mini-LNG plants in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk and in the Kemerovo region. ^[131]

Coal industry

Russia is among the countries that have more than enough coal reserves of all types of categories, with most of them (94%) concentrated in the Asian part of the country. Explored coal reserves have provided mining at the present level for many centuries ^[135] .

In terms of proven reserves, Western Siberia is distinguished (the Kuznetsk Basin , in which coals of all kinds are represented). In Eastern Siberia, the Kansk-Achinsk basin is allocated in terms of reserves. In the Northern region, mining of valuable coking coal in the large Pechora basin continues. In the Far East, the South Yakut , Bureinsky and Kivda-Raychikhinsky basins are the most famous. In the northern regions of the country, there are giant Tungus , Lensky , and Kolyma basins, but the production in them is negligible due to economic inefficiency ^[132] .

The main supplier of coal in Russia is the West Siberian economic region. Located on its territory, the Kuznetsk basin has the capacity to increase production, including cheaper and safer open-pit (quarry) method. The high potential for development of brown coal mining in the Kansk-Achinsk basin, as well as mining in the south of the Far East, remains. A difficult situation due to the development of deposits has developed in the South Yakutsk basin ^[136] .

As of January 1, 2016, 191 coal mines were producing coal in Russia, including 60 coal mines and 131 mines. The total production capacity of coal enterprises amounted to 424.7 million tons ^[137] . According to the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation, in 2016, Russia produced 385.7 million tons of coal. The increase in relation to 2015 amounted to 3.1%, or 11.7 million tons. The increase in production was recorded in the Siberian (+14.7 million tons) and Far Eastern (+2.1 million tons) federal districts. The decline was noted in the North-West (-3.9 million tons), Volga (-0.4 million tons), Urals (-0.1 million tons), Southern (-1 million tons) federal districts. The main share in production came from the Siberian Federal District (84.8% of the total). In the main coal basin of Russia - Kuzbass production amounted to 228.1 million tons ^[138] .

Nuclear power

Russia has a full range of nuclear power technologies from uranium mining to power generation. Carries out design, construction and decommissioning of nuclear power units. Russia has significant explored reserves of uranium ore, mining and mining industries, is a world leader in uranium enrichment , owns technologies for designing and manufacturing nuclear fuel, and is processing and utilizing spent nuclear fuel . It ranks second among European countries in terms of nuclear generation power. ^[139]

As of January 1, 2019, 35 power units with a total capacity of 29,132.2 MW are operated in Russia at 10 operating NPPs. New power units are being actively built both in Russia and for export.

Power industry

The united energy systems of the Center, the North-West, the Volga region , the North Caucasus , the Urals, Siberia and the Far East operate in Russia. Electricity is produced at thermal, nuclear and hydroelectric power plants .

Russia develops all areas of the electric power industry, and in 2014, in per capita electricity production, it was among the ten largest producing countries in the world (7th place - 7285 kWh per person / year). In the total amount of electricity production, 65% is accounted for by thermal power plants, another 15% each comes from hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants. In the European part of the country, more than 50% of the power plants are located; in the Urals and Siberia, 20% each, in the Far East - 5%. The main consumers of electricity in Russia are industrial enterprises, which account for more than 50% of total consumption. In second place is the population (about 15%). The proportion of electric energy losses during transmission is quite high - about 10% ^[140] .

In 2016, Russia generated a total of 1,071.8 billion kWh of electricity. Power consumption was 1,054.5 billion kWh. The installed capacity of all power plants is 244.1 GW. 4.29 GW of capacity was commissioned. By types of power plants, production was distributed as follows: thermal power plants accounted for 628.0 billion kWh, hydroelectric power plants - 186.7 billion kWh, nuclear power plants - 196.4 billion kWh, and industrial power plants - 59.8 billion billion kWh ^[141] .

In 2016, the largest energy producer was the Unified Energy System of Russia , which consists of seven integrated power systems (UES). In parallel, six independent ECOs were active: the Center, the Middle Volga, the Urals, the North-West, the South and Siberia. The UES of Russia electric power complex includes 700 power plants with a capacity of over 5 MW. The network economy has more than 10,700 power lines of the 110–1150 kV voltage class ^[141] .

Manufacturing industry

The manufacturing industry is the leading branch of the Russian industry, it accounts for over 66% of the total industrial output (according to data for 2016). ^[142]

The production volume in the manufacturing industry in 2016 amounted to 34 trillion rubles (about $ 500 billion), of which: ^[142]

• food industry - 18.5%;
• textile and clothing production - 1.0%;
• production of leather, leather goods and footwear production - 0.2%;
• wood processing and production of wood products - 1.4%;
• pulp and paper production; publishing and printing activities - 3.0%;
• production of coke and petroleum products - 21.0%;
• chemical production - 7.8%;
• production of rubber and plastic products - 2.6%;
• production of other non-metallic mineral products - 3.5%;
• metallurgical production and production of finished metal products - 15.3%;
• mechanical engineering - 19.6%;
• other industries - 6.1%.

Food industry

The food industry of Russia is engaged in the production of finished food products or semi-finished products, soft drinks and alcoholic beverages. The food industry of Russia includes about 30 different industries and sub-sectors. The main ones are: food, meat and dairy, flour-and-cereals and fish industries. The structure of the food industry also includes tobacco industry enterprises ^[143] .

In 2014, a total of 1.19 million people were employed in the food industry. The largest industry is the food industry, in which (together with the milling industry) 63% of employees are employed. The second place is occupied by the production of dairy products and cheese making - 17% of workers. In the meat and fish industry, 13 and 7% of workers work, respectively ^[143] .

The development and placement of the food industry is determined by the location of the population and agricultural production. The industry received the greatest development in areas of high concentration of the population and large agricultural production (for example, Moscow, Krasnodar Territory).

The share of food enterprises accounts for 14% of the total production of the industrial complex of the country. At the end of 2014, the volume of goods shipped from domestic production of the food industry of the Russian Federation amounted to 4.7 trillion rubles ^[143] .

The Russian food industry is mainly focused on the domestic market. Its products are not inferior in quality characteristics, and in some cases exceed imported ones, are competitive in the domestic market in price characteristics ^[144] .

In 2014, exports of products of the Russian food industry amounted to $ 11.47 billion, imports - $ 36.25 billion ^[143] .

The most important in the Russian export of food products are three commodity groups: fish and shellfish, fats and oils, as well as food industry waste and animal feed. These three groups account for 55% of all Russian exports ^[143] .

Ferrous metallurgy

The share of ferrous metallurgy in the volume of industrial production in Russia is about 10% ^[145] . The ferrous metallurgy includes more than 1.5 thousand enterprises and organizations, 70% of them are city-forming, the number of employed is more than 660 thousand people ^[145] .

More than 80% of the industrial production of ferrous metallurgy in Russia accounts for 9 large companies: EvrazHolding , Severstal , Novolipetsk Metallurgical Combine , Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Combine , UK Metalloinvest , Mechel , Trubnaya Metallurgical Company , United Metallurgical Company , Chelyabinsk Pipe Rolling Plant Group ^[145] .

The production volumes of the main types of ferrous metallurgy products in 2006 exceeded the figures for the beginning of the 1990s ^[145] . In 2000–2007, the production volumes of steel and alloys increased, which was due to the advanced development of modern advanced methods, in particular, electric steel-making production ^[145] . In 2007, the production of rolled ferrous metals amounted to 59.6 million tons ^[145] . As of 2008, Russia ranked 4th in the world in steel production (72 million tons per year) and 3rd in the world in steel products export (27.6 million tons per year) ^[145] .

Ferrous metallurgy is one of the leading sectors of the Russian economy in terms of technological re-equipment and modernization. In the first decade of the 21st century, more than 1.2 trillion rubles were invested in the industry, of which more than 695 billion rubles were invested in 2008–2010. In particular, production was modernized in order to increase its resource efficiency and mastering the production of new products with high added value. One of the results of this was that by 2011 the industry had completely eliminated the energy-intensive open-hearth method of steelmaking by switching to modern methods ^[73] .

From 2000 to 2007, pipe production in Russia increased by 2.7 times ^[145] . In recent years, about $ 8 billion has been invested in the modernization of the Russian pipe industry, new types of products have been developed, and the quality has improved ^[146] . By 2010, about 40% of pipes in Russia were produced on new equipment ^[146] . During the modernization of the pipe industry, major projects such as the construction of two mill-5000 at the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Combine and the Vyksa Metallurgical Plant were implemented, which made it possible to create in Russia the production of large-diameter pipes previously imported ^[73] .

Iron Ore Mining

By explored reserves of iron ore, Russia ranks first in the world, however, it is inferior to the main producers in terms of iron content in the ore. There are 193 deposits in the country, while 18 of them are classified as large and very large (with reserves of more than 1 billion tons). In the structure of proven reserves, only 12% are rich, that is, not requiring prior enrichment. Explored reserves at the current level of production should be enough for 50 years ^[148] .

More than 60% of all explored reserves of iron ore are concentrated in the Central Black Earth region ( Kursk Magnetic Anomaly ). Mining are 19 mining enterprises that belong to the largest metallurgical companies in the country. Ferrous metallurgy is characterized by the concentration of ore mining in the largest and largest deposits: Kovdorsky , Kostomukshsky (Northern region), Mikhailovsky , Lebedinsky , Stoylo-Lebedinsky, Stoilensky (Central Chernozem district), Kachkanar and Gusevogorsky (Ural). The West Siberian and East Siberian regions account for about 12% of the production ^[149] .

Non-ferrous metallurgy

According to data for 2015, the share of non-ferrous metallurgy in Russian GDP was 2.8%, in industrial production - 7.0% ^[150] . Russia has a developed raw material base and unique technologies for the production of various non-ferrous metals, but for some non-ferrous metals there is a significant shortage of proven reserves. The industry employs more than 1,800 industrial enterprises, employing more than 550 thousand people ^[151] .

Aluminum production ranks first in scale in the industry ^[152] . In 2016, Russia was in second place in the world in aluminum smelting, second only to China ^[153] . Russia is poor in high-quality raw materials for smelting - bauxite , so the production uses the worst in terms of characteristics of nepheline and syenite . The production process consists of two stages - the production of alumina and the smelting of aluminum from it. Alumina in Russia is produced in Pikalyovo , Volkhov , Krasnoturinsk , Kamensk-Uralsky , Achinsk . Smelting plants are located in regions with the cheapest electric power: Bratsk , Krasnoyarsk , Sayanogorsk . One of the largest aluminum companies in the world, RUSAL , was established on the basis of Russian aluminum production ^[154] .

Copper production is the second largest sub-industry of non-ferrous metallurgy. In 2015, Russia was ranked 7th in the world among copper-producing countries, with production volumes of 732 thousand tons ^[155] . More than half of all copper in the country is produced in the Norilsk and Pechenga ore regions. The leading producer is Norilsk Nickel ^[156] .

Annual production of nickel in Russia is estimated at about 300 thousand tons. The main mining areas are Norilsk and Pechenga, as well as the Southern Urals. Smelting is carried out at the plants of Norilsk , Monchegorsk , Orsk , Rezh , Verkhniy Ufaley . Nickel-based alloys and rolled products are manufactured at the Stupino plant. Russia is a nickel exporter ^[157] .

Russia has large reserves of lead and zinc : 3rd place in the world in terms of reserves of lead (after Australia and Kazakhstan) and 8th place in the world in reserves of zinc. The main producer of zinc in the country is the Chelyabinsk plant Electrozinc . Lead smelting is carried out by the only plant in Dalnegorsk (Far East) ^[157] .

The main tin deposits in Russia are located in remote areas, which limits the production and development of production. The main deposits are located in the Far East (in Yakutia, the Khabarovsk Territory and in Chukotka). All the tin concentrate obtained is smelted to the Novosibirsk plant , which has a capacity of up to 20 thousand tons of tin per year ^[158] .

Russia occupies a leading place in the world in terms of technology, scale of production and use of metallic titanium . In terms of smelting titanium sponge, Russia is in second place in the world after Japan. Production is concentrated at the Avisma plant in Berezniki. The country's leading manufacturer of rolled titanium and alloys based on it is the Verkhne-Salda plant. The high-precision forgings made of titanium alloy are produced by the Ural Smithy in Chebarkul. Russia is the world's leading exporter of titanium and its products, providing materials to foreign aircraft manufacturing corporations Boeing and Airbus ^[159] .

Russia is among the world's largest producers of magnesium. The main producers are Solikamsk Magnesium Plant and Avisma. Magnesium-based alloys, rolled products and forgings are produced at a number of plants in Samara, Verkhnyaya Salda, and Stupino. Also in Russia, smelting of tungsten and molybdenum , some rare and trace metals (beryllium, gallium, germanium, zirconium) is carried out, but this production is small ^[160] .

In terms of natural gold reserves , Russia ranks third in the world after South Africa and the United States, and in 2014, the country ranked second in the world (272 tons), pushing Australia into third place (269.7 tons) ^{[161] [162]} . According to the scale of gold mining, the following subjects of the Russian Federation are distinguished: Krasnoyarsk Territory, Yakutia, Magadan Region, Khabarovsk Territory, Irkutsk Region, Chita Region. Smelting of gold is carried out by nine enterprises. In Russia, jewelry production is developed, among which centers emit Moscow, St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Krasnoye-na-Volga, Kostroma, Bronnitsy, Krasnoyarsk, Vladikavkaz, Chelyabinsk, as well as enterprises of Dagestan ^[163] .

By total and proven reserves of silver, Russia ranks first in the world. Ural, Far East, Western and Eastern Siberia are distinguished by reserves of complex ores. Silver concentrate is supplied for smelting at the same plants that produce gold ^[164] .

The Russian company ALROSA is the world's largest in the exploration, production and sale of diamonds ^[165] . In 2015, diamond production in Russia amounted to 38.26 million carats ^[166] .

Mechanical Engineering and Metalworking

At the end of 2015, 28,210 organizations of the machine-building complex were operating in Russia, the volume of goods shipped of which in monetary terms amounted to 1 trillion 460 billion rubles. The average annual number of workers employed in mechanical engineering amounted to 721 thousand people ^[167] .

Manufacture of machine tools and tools

The machine tool industry forms the basis of engineering. The industry provides technical re-equipment of existing enterprises and provides new enterprises with equipment. The technical level of the industry determines the state of all engineering. In Russia, there are more than 270 specialized machine-tool and tool enterprises and 8 specialized research institutes and design organizations. In the machine tool industry there are three main areas of production - the production of metalworking machines , the production of woodworking machines , the production of press-forging equipment ^[170] .

Russia's share in the global production of machine tools is about 0.3%. Import of machines exceeds export by an order of magnitude. Среди действующих центров станкостроения выделяют Москву, Рязань, Сасово, Владимир, Краснодар, Армавир, Астрахань, Стерлитамак, Воткинск, Ижевск, Киров, Нижний Новгород, Самару, Пензу, Алапаевск и Челябинск ^[168] .

Российское производство металлорежущих станков и кузнечно-прессовых машин в период с 2010 по 2015 годы сократилось до среднегодового объёма на уровне 6 тыс. единиц. Модернизация производственных предприятий стала осуществляться преимущественно за счёт импорта средств производства. В рассматриваемый период доля импорта в российском потреблении металлорежущих станков и кузнечно-прессовых машин в ценовом выражении составила более 90 % (в 2015 году: металлорежущих станков — 92,9 %; кузнечно-прессовых машин — более 99 %). Отечественные производители перестали обеспечивать потребности рынка, при этом многие категории станков в России вообще не производятся, а те отдельные виды, что продолжают выпускаться, уступают зарубежным аналогам по техническим характеристикам и соотношению цена/качество ^[171] .

В 2016 году ситуация несколько выправилась. Доля импорта на российском рынке металлорежущего оборудования составила 88 %, при росте отечественного производства на 42 % по сравнению с 2015 годом. В 2016 году в России было произведено 3,9 тыс. металлорежущих станков и 2,7 тыс. единиц кузнечно-прессового оборудования общей стоимостью 11,8 млрд руб. ^[171]

Russia produces a variety of cutting and measuring tools for metal and other materials. The main centers for the production of cutting and measuring tools - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk and some other cities. Abrasive tools are produced by specialized plants in Belgorod, Volzhsky, Zlatoust, Kyshtym, Luga, Chelyabinsk. Diamond tools for metal processing are produced in Tomilino and Roslavl; for processing stone, straightening tools and drilling wells - in Terek. Russia is an exporter of abrasive tools ^[168] .

Electrotechnical industry

Electrical companies produce a wide range of products - power equipment, electric motors, a variety of cables and wires, electro-thermal equipment and much more (more than 35 thousand types of various products). One of the most significant types of production in the industry is the production of energy equipment. Russian enterprises of power engineering are equipped with unique machines, have the ability to produce almost any kind of generating and auxiliary equipment. They have a portfolio of export orders and supply products to a number of countries in the world - China, Iran, India, Algeria and others. Equipment is being produced for Gazprom and other consumers in the country, but the order book is small ^[172] .

The main center of production of turbines and generators for nuclear, fuel and hydraulic power plants - St. Petersburg. Gas turbines are produced in Rybinsk and Perm, steam turbines and generators are produced in Kaluga, Yekaterinburg, Novosibirsk, and hydraulic turbines in Syzran. Steam boilers for power plants are produced in Belgorod, Taganrog, Biysk, high power transformers - in Togliatti. Reactors for nuclear power plants can produce plants in St. Petersburg and Volgodonsk. Large units of auxiliary equipment for power plants are manufactured in Podolsk and Chekhov ^[173] .

In the period from 2012 to 2016, the production of turbines in Russia increased by 5 times, reaching a volume of more than 600 units in 2016 (in 2012 - 120). The increase was mainly due to the growth of power engineering, while the dynamics were not affected by the crisis, in particular the collapse of the ruble exchange rate. The reason is that foreign technologies are not used in power engineering and there is no need for import substitution. Trends in 2017 consist in shifting demand towards low-power devices and increasing the production of steam turbines ^[174] .

About 20 enterprises are involved in the production of cables and wires, including joint ventures with foreign companies. They are partly specialized, but in the conditions of the market they take up the manufacture of any product available to them. Products of the industry are in good demand due to the active development of wired communications, housing, etc. The main cable production plants are located in Moscow, Podolsk, Kolchugin, Rybinsk, St. Petersburg, Pskov, Kirov, Kirs, Samara, Saransk, Armavir, Tomsk, Irkutsk ^[173] .

Defense Industrial Complex

In 2007, the volume of sales of the defense-industrial complex of Russia amounted to $ 18.6 billion, of which $ 11.6 billion accounted for the state order, $ 7 billion for export ^[175] . From 2000 to 2007, the sales volume of the Russian defense industry increased by 3.7 times, including state orders - by 6.4 times, exports - by 2.2 times ^[175] .

In 2009, production in the Russian defense industry grew by about 10% ^[176] .

In 2010, the total foreign sales of Rosoboronexport amounted to $ 8.7 billion (10 times since 2001) ^[177]

Russia's share in the global arms market is 23%, and is second only to the share of the United States (32%) ^[178] . In monetary terms, in 2010, the export of military products for the first time exceeded $ 10 billion ^[179] .

In 2009, Russia had military-technical cooperation with more than 80 countries of the world, and supplied military products to 62 countries ^[180] , and the volume of Russian exports of military products in 2009 exceeded 260 billion rubles ($ 8.8 billion) ^{[ 181]} . According to SIPRI , the share of deliveries of combat aircraft in the period 2005–2009 amounted to 40% of Russia's total exports ^[182] ; according to Rosoboronexport, this share is about 50% of all sales of Russian weapons ^[183] .

Russia has multibillion-dollar contracts for the supply of arms and dual-use products with India ^{[184] [185] [186]} , Venezuela ^[187] , China ^{[186] [188]} , Vietnam ^{[189] [190]} , Algeria ^[186] , Kuwait ^[191] , Greece ^[192] , Iran ^[193] , Brazil ^[194] , Jordan ^[195] , Syria, Malaysia, Indonesia, Peru ^[196] .

In April 2010, a representative of the Almaz Antey Air Defense Concern announced that Russia had fulfilled the contract for the delivery to China of 15 divisions of the S -300 Favorit air defense system ^[197] .

In 2006, the Russian State Arms Development Program for 2007–2015 was approved, providing for the purchase and development of military equipment (military transport aircraft, space assets, vehicles, armored vehicles, missile defense and air defense, ships and submarines) for the Russian army. During the course of its operation, 4.9 trillion rubles will be allocated to finance this program. At the end of September 2010, Deputy Prime Minister Sergei Ivanov announced another amount: within ten years, until 2020, the budget of the state armaments program will be at least 22 trillion rubles ^[198] .

Shipbuilding

The shipbuilding industry in Russia is traditionally one of the most technologically advanced sectors of the economy ^[199] . Russian shipyards have experience building ships of almost any class, type and tonnage. The industry has the largest manufacturers of power systems and automation systems ^[199] . The scientific potential of research and design institutes, sectoral and academic laboratories allows not only to carry out unique orders for ship design, but also to develop new conceptual areas in shipbuilding ^[199] .

In Russia, there are more than 1,000 enterprises engaged in shipbuilding, ship repair, the production of propulsion, sonar, navigation, auxiliary, deck and other types of equipment, materials and components for ships, as well as carrying out scientific activities in the field of shipbuilding and marine engineering ^[200] . According to other estimates, there are about 4,000 enterprises and organizations in Russia, which to one degree or another provide for the production of products and services in the field of creating technology for studying the continental shelf, as well as economic and military activities in the internal seas and in international waters ^[199] . The largest centers of Russian shipbuilding are St. Petersburg , Severodvinsk , Nizhny Novgorod , and the Kaliningrad region .

In accordance with a presidential decree signed in March 2007, the United Shipbuilding Corporation was established , the main field of activity of which is the development of civil shipbuilding. United Shipbuilding Corporation has consolidated 19 existing large shipbuilding and ship repair enterprises ^[201] .

In 1995–2005, Russian shipbuilding enterprises placed 4% of the volume of Russian ship orders ^[202] . By 2007, this figure had risen to 6%, in 2008 it was 8% ^[202] . In 2008, sales in Russian shipbuilding amounted to 150 billion rubles ^[202] . The production volume in the Russian shipbuilding for 11 months of 2009 increased by 50% ^{[203] [204]} . In the new 2010 Russian shipbuilding entered with an increase of 62% ^{[205] [206]} .

Automotive industry

In the mid-2000s, the Russian government introduced the industrial assembly regime, which allows auto companies to import automotive components at low customs rates in exchange for assuming the responsibility for localizing car production. This was used by foreign automakers, who decided to create car plants in Russia to assemble their cars.

In the 2000s, several dozens of automobile plants were opened in Russia, producing cars under the brands of well-known manufacturers, including Volkswagen , Škoda , BMW , Ford , Renault , Toyota , Chevrolet , Peugeot - Citroën - Mitsubishi , Nissan , Opel , Kia , Volvo Truck and some others. The capacities of the plants are designed for production, ranging from large-node to small-node assemblies, including the Completely Knocked Down (CKD) assembly with a high degree of localization of production, with welding and body painting, and aggregates ^{[207] [208] [209] [210]} . The discovery of new plants continues ^[211] . The massive opening of factories of foreign automakers radically changed the face of the Russian car industry and led to a decrease in the share of imports of passenger cars on the Russian market (from 55% in 2008 to 36% in 2011).

The share of cars of foreign brands in the domestic production of cars increased from 6% in 2003 to 62% in 2011.

At the end of 2008, Russia produced 1.471 million passenger cars and 256 thousand trucks ^[212] . In the same year, 132 thousand cars and 45 thousand trucks were exported from Russia for a total of $ 1.7 billion ^[213] .

In early 2011, a new industrial assembly regime was introduced, dramatically increasing the requirements for localizing car production ^{[73] [214] [215]} . In 2011, over 1 million foreign cars were assembled in Russia.

In the first half of 2012, the growth in car production compared to the same period in 2011 was: for trucks, 4.1% for cars, 22.2% for buses, 51.3%.

Ambitious projects of the Russian supercar Marussia ^[216] and E-mobility of Mikhail Prokhorov ^[217] existed in the automotive industry of Russia.

Aerospace industry

The development strategy of the aviation industry of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2015. The assets of the Russian aircraft industry are concentrated in two specialized integrated structures: United Aircraft Corporation (it includes the largest aircraft manufacturing enterprises) and Oboronprom (it includes the largest helicopter and engine building enterprises). These companies include 214 enterprises and organizations, including 103 industrial, 102 scientific research institutes and design bureaus. The total number of people employed in the Russian aviation industry is more than 411 thousand people. The largest scientific centers of aviation are: VIAM , CIAM , TsAGI , LII , GosNIIAS , ONPO "Technology" ^[218] .

In terms of the output of military aircraft manufacturing, Russia is in 2nd place in the world, helicopter manufacturing - in 3rd place in the world (6% of the world helicopter market) ^[218] .

In 2010, the revenue of Russian enterprises of the aviation industry amounted to more than 504 billion rubles, of which 31% is the share of aircraft manufacturing, 18% - helicopter manufacturing, 24% - engine building, 8% - aggregation, 11% - instrument making, 8% - production of special equipment. During this year, more than 100 military aircraft were launched in Russia ^[218] .

After the BRIC summit in April 2010 , it became known that negotiations are underway with the Brazilian aerospace corporation Embraer on the joint development and production of aircraft for Russian regional aviation. Probably, we are talking about the use of the capacity of the Kazan Aviation Plant ^[219] .

There are estimates according to which, in the case of the unification of the Russian and Ukrainian aviation industries, the aircraft builders of the two countries are able to form the third most important aircraft manufacturing center after the United States and Western Europe ^[220] . In April 2010, the UAC and the Ukrainian state-owned company Antonov agreed on the creation of a company that coordinates the joint production of An-124 aircraft, the production of An-148 , An-70 and An-140 aircraft ^[221] . It is also assumed that UAC will gain control over Antonov in exchange for a stake in UAC ^[221] .

Russian manufacturers of the aviation industry cooperate (cooperation, joint production) with almost all of the world's leading manufacturers, including Boeing , Airbus , Snecma , Brazilian Embraer , a number of Italian concerns from the Finmeccanica group (for example, Agusta Westland , Alenia Aeronautica ) ^[222] , French manufacturers (12 companies) ^[223] , with Chinese manufacturers ^[224] , with a number of Ukrainian factories ^{[225] [226]} .

Recently, Russian aircraft manufacturers have concluded multibillion-dollar firm contracts for the supply of civilian aircraft to foreign air carriers ( SSJ-100 and MS-21 ^[227] , totaling more than $ 7 billion).

The structure of Roscosmos , according to the official website of the agency, includes 66 enterprises ^[228] .

According to data for 2006, Russia accounted for approximately 11% of the world market for space services ^[229] . According to the State Strategy for the Development of the Rocket and Space Industry, the share of products of the Russian rocket and space industry on the world market should reach 15% by 2015 ^[230] .

In terms of the intensity of space activity (in terms of the number of launched spacecraft and the number of launched spacecraft), Russia occupies a leading position over the past few years ^{[231] [232]} .

In terms of financing civilian space activities, according to recent data, Russia ranks sixth in the world ^[232] .

At present, the Roskosmos agency has concluded intergovernmental agreements on cooperation in space activities with 19 countries; among them are the USA, Japan, India, Brazil, Sweden, Argentina and the countries of the European Space Agency (ESA) ^[233]

In March 2010, France ordered 14 Soyuz launch vehicles for Russia for $ 1 billion ^[234] . In November 2011, in the light of the successful cooperation of the Russian Federation and France in the preparation and launch of the launch vehicle from the French Kourou cosmodrome, it became known that a contract was signed for the construction of 21 Soyuz launch vehicles, an estimated cost of at least 32 billion rubles. (besides this contract, Russian and French specialists will be engaged in the development of a new generation of launch vehicles) ^[235]

See also the International Aviation and Space Salon (MAKS) (contracts for the amount: in 2005 - $ 5 billion, in 2007 - $ 3 billion, in 2009 - $ 10 billion).

Agricultural Engineering

Russian enterprises of agricultural engineering:

• Rostselmash - one of the leaders of the world agricultural engineering ^[236] . It accounts for 65% of the Russian agricultural equipment market and 17% of the world market for this equipment ^[236] .
• Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant
• Cheboksary aggregate plant

In 2008, Russia produced 11.2 thousand tractors on a wheel drive, 8 thousand grain combine harvesters, 803 fodder harvesters ^[212] .

Railway engineering

Russian enterprises of railway engineering: Transmashholding ( consisting of 13 large enterprises ), Tikhvin Carriage Works , Uralvagonzavod , Carriage Company of Mordovia , Wagonmash , Kaliningrad Carriage Works , Torzhok Carriage Works .

In 2008, 49 sections of mainline diesel locomotives, 259 mainline electric locomotives, 2.1 thousand mainline passenger cars, 42.7 thousand mainline freight cars ^[212] were manufactured in Russia.

A number of Russian car-building enterprises are actively cooperating in the joint production and development of equipment for the railway industry with a number of foreign companies, including Alstom , Siemens , Starfire Engineering & Technologies, Nippon Sharyo Ltd , American Railcar Industries and Amsted Rail ^{[237] [238] [239] [ 237] 240] [241]} .

In May 2010, Russian Railways signed two contracts with Transmashholding, for the supply of 200 passenger electric locomotives, and 221 for freight traffic. The total amount of the contract is over € 2 billion. Passenger electric locomotives, developed in collaboration with the French Alstom, will be delivered in 2012-2020. Freight locomotives will be manufactured and supplied by Ural Locomotives LLC (a joint venture of the German Siemens and Sinara group) ^[242] .

Engine building

In Russia, there are enterprises of aviation, tank, rocket and other sub-sectors of engine-building.

More than 80% of assets in the Russian engine-building sector are controlled by United Engine Corporation ^[243] .

Microelectronics

According to Rosnano and Sistema , the volume of the Russian microelectronics market in 2010 was $ 1.5 billion. This is less than 1% of the world (estimated at $ 280 billion). If the Russian market is not regulated, by 2015 it will grow to $ 2.84 billion, and if we stimulate import substitution - to $ 9.93 billion, predict AFK and Rosnano ^[244] . According to market participants, the share of Russian chip manufacturers in the segment of industrial microelectronics is about 30-50%, and about 5% in the segment of consumer electrical goods ^[245] .

In 2008, the growth rate of microelectronics in Russia was about 25%, and in 2009 - about 15%, which exceeded the growth rate of other Russian industries ^[246] . In February 2010, the Deputy Minister of Industry and Trade of Russia, Yuri Borisov, said that the implementation of the Russian government’s strategy in the field of microelectronics reduced the technological lag of Russian manufacturers from Western to 5 years (until 2007, this lag was estimated to be 20-25 years) ^[246] .

The Russian Angstrom group of companies and the Micron company are among the largest manufacturers of integrated circuits in Eastern Europe ^[247] . About 20% of Mikron's products are exported ^[248] .

By the end of 2010, production of 90nm chips was started in Russia ^[249] .

In October 2009, SITRONICS-Nano was established to work on a project to create a production of integrated circuits for a 90 nm process technology (such chips can be used to produce sim-cards, digital set-top boxes, receivers Glonass, etc.) ^[250] . In February 2012, Sitronics-nano opened a production line for the production of chips with a topology of 90 nm ^{[251] [252]} .

Optical-mechanical industry

LOMO is the largest Russian manufacturer of optical-mechanical and optical-electronic devices ^[253] .

Production Association "Ural Optical-Mechanical Plant" named after E. Yalamov is one of the largest Russian enterprises for the development and production of optical-electronic devices for military and civil purposes.

Oil refining industry

In Russia, there are 30 large oil refineries with a total oil refining capacity of 261.6 million tons, as well as 80 mini-refineries with a total processing capacity of 11.3 million tons. The average capacity of Russian refineries is 9.1 million tons ^[254] .

During the period of economic reforms of the 1990s, there was a significant reduction in the volume of production in the oil refining and petrochemical industries ^[255] . Due to a sharp reduction in domestic oil consumption with a total primary processing capacity of 296 million tons per year in 2000, 168.7 million tons were actually processed, that is, the refinery plant load fell to 49.8% ^[255] . This led to a low refining depth and low quality of the produced petroleum products ^[255] . The depth of oil refining in 1999 averaged 67.4% across Russia, and only at the Omsk refinery it reached 81.5%, approaching the standards of Western European countries and the USA ^[255] .

In recent years, there has been an encouraging trend. A sign of improvement is, in particular, a significant increase in investment in refining. So, in 2006 they grew by 11.7%, reaching 40 billion rubles. Domestic demand for petroleum products is also growing ^[255] . From 2004 to 2008, the total volume of oil refining increased from 194 to 236 million tons, and the volume of refining in these years grew at a faster pace than the volume of production. If in 2004, Russia processed 42.3% of the oil produced, by 2008 this figure was 48.2% ^[254] . The depth of oil refining from 2005 to 2006 increased from 67.6 to 71.3% ^[255] . In recent years, a number of refineries are actively building deep-oil refining complexes ^[255] .

In 2008, Russia produced 36 million tons of motor gasoline, 69 million tons of diesel fuel, 64 million tons of fuel oil ^[256] .

By 2012, with state support, it is planned to build the largest oil refinery in Russia at the end point of the East Siberia-Pacific Ocean oil pipeline, the refining depth will be 93%, which corresponds to the level reached at US refineries ^[255] .

Chemical industry

The share of the chemical industry in the structure of Russia's GDP in 2006 was about 6%, in the export structure - about 5%, in the industry almost 7% of the fixed assets of industry were concentrated.

In 2009, 3.1 million tons of ammonia worth $ 626 million, 814 thousand tons of methanol worth $ 156 million, 22 million tons of mineral fertilizers worth $ 5.6 billion, 702 thousand tons of synthetic rubber worth $ 1.2 billion were exported ^[213] .

At the APEC-2010 summit, Russia, Japan and China signed a contract for the construction of a plant for the production of urea fertilizers in Tatarstan with a total value of $ 1 billion ^[257] , commissioning is scheduled for 2015.

Chemical Pharmaceutical Industry

The Russian pharmaceutical market is one of the most growing in the world. In 2008, sales on it amounted to about 360 billion rubles. The pharmaceutical industry in Russia provides Russian health care by about 70% ^[258] .

At the beginning of 2008, about 350 enterprises were operating in the pharmaceutical industry that have licenses for the production of medicines. The 10 largest plants produce more than 30% of the drugs produced in Russia. In 2007, the export volume of medicines from Russia amounted to about 6 billion rubles ^[258] .

Negotiations are underway between the State Corporation of Nanotechnologies (Rosnano) and British partners to create a large pharmaceutical company to create innovative pharmaceutical products. The scope of the project is $ 900 million ^[259] .

Nanotechnology production

In 2007, the Russian Nanotechnology Corporation was established (Rosnano), the purpose of which is to implement state policy in the field of nanotechnology, develop the innovation infrastructure in the field of nanotechnology, and implement projects for creating promising nanotechnology and nanoindustry ^[260] . On May 4, 2008, the Russian government adopted the Program for the Development of Nanoindustry in the Russian Federation until 2015 ^[67] .

On April 26, 2010, a plant for the production of monolithic hard alloy tools with a multilayer nanostructured coating was opened in Rybinsk ^[261] . This is the first nanotechnological production created in Russia with the participation of Rosnano ^[261] . The Russian Nanotechnology Corporation has spent about 500 million rubles on financing this project ^[261] . Mikhail Kovalchuk, head of the Russian Kurchatov Institute research center, said: “Rosnano in the Rybinsk project played a very important role in the chain between the scientific organization, the funding body and the final production. We created intellectual property for budget money, and then with the help of Rosnano we commercialized it and legally sold the license for its use to the manufacturers. Thus, thanks to this state-owned corporation, our technology was turned into a commercial product. ” ^[261]

As of the beginning of June 2010, the supervisory board of Rosnano has approved the financing of 76 industrial projects that are being implemented in 27 Russian regions. The total investment in them is about $ 8 billion, including the share of Rosnano - about $ 3.5 billion. By the middle of May 2010, 1607 applications for financing projects in the field of nanoindustry had been received by Rosnano. Of these, 920 applications by this time were rejected, 321 projects were undergoing scientific, technical, and investment expertise, and 290 were under consideration by the scientific and technical council and investment policy council ^[262] .

From 2010 to September 2012, with the participation of Rosnano in Russia, 24 productions were created for the production of products using nanotechnology ^{[263] [264] [265]} .

Light industry

The structure of light industry in Russia includes 14 thousand enterprises. In 2008, 463 thousand people were employed in the industry, of which 75% are women. The share of light industry in the total production of the country is less than 1.0% ^[266] . The industry has 15 specialized research and design institutes. Many developments of these institutions correspond to and exceed the world level ^[266] . The book value of fixed assets in the industry in 2008 was 26.6 billion rubles ^[266] .

The main sub-sectors of light industry are ^[266] :

• textile production (45% of the output in the industry);
• clothing production, dressing and dyeing of fur (30%);
• manufacture of leather, leather goods and shoe manufacturing (25%).

Light industry enterprises are located in almost all regions of the Russian Federation. Among the Russian regions, the Ivanovo region stands out in particular, in which light industry is the main industry. The light industry of Russia for 2005 included about 14 thousand enterprises and organizations, of which 1437 belonged to large and medium ones ^[267] . 70% of production falls on the 300 largest enterprises ^[268] . The share of products manufactured on the orders of law enforcement agencies was about 11% of the total volume of output of light industry products ^[267] .

Timber industry complex

Russia possesses about 25% of the world's forest resources, which provides unique opportunities for the development of the timber industry complex. Forests cover 45% of the territory of Russia (766.6 million hectares), with forest resources estimated at 83 billion m³, of which valuable coniferous species account for 76% ^[269] . For comparison, wood reserves in Canada are 35 billion m³, in the USA - 22 billion m³ ^[270] . The possibilities of annual deforestation are up to 500 million m³. At present, the annual logging is less than the natural increase, so wood reserves are increasing ^[269] . The forest complex of Russia is characterized by low added value per unit of output, while up to 35% of high-quality wood is not used or is used inefficiently. In 2015, the cost of m³ of forest products produced in Russia was estimated at $ 264, in Canada - at $ 499, in the United States - at $ 999, in Finland - at $ 1214 ^[270] .

In the forest industry, about 20 thousand enterprises are engaged in wood harvesting, mechanical processing, production of cellulose, paper, cardboard, building structures, plywood, matches, furniture, wood chemistry products, etc. In the industry about 1 million people are employed, while some of them in underdeveloped areas, where enterprises of this industry are the only possible employers ^[269] .

Russia is characterized by lagging behind the most developed countries in the production of the most demanded wood processing products - cellulose, cardboard and paper. In terms of timber harvesting and timber export, Russia ranks third in the world after the United States and China. It is estimated that the current needs of the country's economy for wood are estimated at 75-80 million square meters. m², excluding export options. Production capacity is estimated at 100 million square meters. m² ^[269] .

Logging is carried out in 66 entities, among which are the Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Kirov Regions, the Komi Republic, the Republic of Karelia, the Perm Territory, the Sverdlovsk, Kostroma Regions (in the European part of the country) and the Irkutsk Region, the Khabarovsk and Krasnoyarsk Territories (in the Asian part). Lumber production since the early 1990s has declined more than wood harvesting, and at this stage is distributed throughout the country more evenly. The Arkhangelsk, Kirov, Irkutsk Regions and the Krasnoyarsk Territory stand out against the general background on the scale of production ^[269] .

According to statistics, the timber industry is currently largely focused on the external market. At the same time, there is an increase in the harvesting of hardwood while maintaining coniferous timber at the same place. So, in 2016, coniferous logs were harvested - 79 million square meters. m², hardwood - 27.1 million square meters. m², wood fuel - 14.2 million square. m², untreated wood - 8.7 million square meters. m² ^[271] . in 2018, products of the timber industry complex managed to surpass the 2014 records.

Fish industry

Russia possesses enormous land resources, the most valuable of which are agricultural land, which in 2011 occupied 220.4 million hectares, or 12.9% of the total land fund of the country. In the modern structure of agricultural land, more than half is occupied by arable land, followed by diminishing pastures, hayfields, deposits, and perennial plantings. By the area of ​​arable land, Russia ranks third in the world after the USA and India, and by the provision of arable land population - the fourth place after Kazakhstan, Australia and Canada ^[272] .

The volume of agricultural production in Russia in 2016 amounted to 5.6 trillion rubles (about $ 90 billion). The leading industry is crop production , which accounts for 56% of the volume of agricultural production, the share of animal husbandry - 44%. The structure of agricultural production by types of farms: agricultural organizations - 53%, households - 35%, farmers - 12% ^[273] .

Russia is a major exporter of agricultural products. In particular, wheat exports Russia ranks 1st among the countries of the world ^[274] . The total exports of food and agricultural raw materials from Russia in 2016 amounted to $ 17 billion ^[275] .

According to geographer Tatyana Nefedova , at the present stage in agriculture there are complex contradictory processes: production is increasingly concentrated in the southern regions of the country and large holdings, while depopulation of the rural population has declined in vast territories. Agricultural production has grown steadily since 1999, but the acreage has declined sharply. Cattle livestock continues to decrease ^[276] .

The spatial structure of grain production has clearly changed, which is increasingly concentrated in areas with favorable natural conditions. Thus, in 2016, 58% of the grain was collected in the south of the European part of Russia, 21% in the southern regions of the Volga region and the Urals, although these territories occupy 10% of the total land area. Since 1990, 40 million hectares of arable land (or a third of the total) have been lost, with the strongest reduction occurring in the non-chernozem zone (13 million hectares) and steppe regions of the Urals and Siberia. In the south of the European part of Russia, the losses are insignificant, and there is a rapid recovery ^[276] .

In animal husbandry in recent years there has been an increase in meat production, but only due to the development of poultry farming and pig breeding. The big problem is the loss of breeding and breeding farms, which are very difficult to restore. Many enterprises buy producers, youngsters and chickens abroad and are highly dependent on imports. Meat production is increasingly concentrated in large enterprises supplying the city. State support is provided mainly only to large agricultural holdings ^[276] .

Crop production

Russia has 10% of all arable land in the world. Over 4/5 of arable land in Russia falls on the Central Volga region , the North Caucasus , the Urals and Western Siberia .

Main crops: ^[277]

• cereals (gross yield in 2016 - 119 million tons, 4th place in the world) ^{[278] [279]}
• sugar beet (48 million tons, 1st place in the world) ^[280]
• sunflower (11 million tons, 2nd place in the world) ^[281]
• soybeans (3 million tons)
• potatoes (31 million tons, 3rd place in the world) ^{[278] [282]}
• vegetables (16 million tons)

Livestock

The main types of livestock products produced in Russia: ^[283]

• meat (in 2015, produced 9.6 million tons, 4th place in the world) ^[278]
  • beef (1.6 million tons)
  • pork (3.1 million tons)
  • poultry meat (4.5 million tons)
  • other types of meat (0.3 million tons)
• milk (30.8 million tons)
• eggs (42.6 billion pieces)
• wool (56 thousand tons)
• honey (68 thousand tons)

The tertiary sector of the economy, or the services sector , includes a wide range of industries that are usually divided into three groups: consumer (education, health, social assistance, tourism, culture, etc.), serving the interaction of economic agents and government services, security and safety order Since 2005, Russia has a classification of types of economic activity in accordance with international standards, in which nine types of services are distinguished ^[284] :

• Wholesale and retail trade, repair.
• Hotels and restaurants.
• Transportation and communication.
• Financial activities.
• Real estate transactions, rental and provision of services.
• Public administration and military security, compulsory social security.
• Education.
• Health and social services.
• Provision of other community, social and personal services.

The services sector plays a leading role in the global economy and is developing most dynamically. In developed countries, the share of services in GDP reaches 65–75%, and in employment — over 70% ^[285] . The share of services in Russia's GDP in the period from 1990 to 2013 increased from 32.6% to 69%. According to the dynamics, the volume of paid services per capita in the country from 2001 to 2014 increased in price terms by 88.4%. The sectoral classification shows that in 2014, trade and other types of services had the largest share both in the sectoral structure of the sector (40 and 25%) and in the structure of employment (28.5 and 27.8%) ^[286] .

Trade

During the transition from a planned to a market economy, trade (retail and wholesale) has become one of the largest contributors to Russia's GDP, as well as the largest sector in employment ^[287] . If in 1990 the retail trade turnover was 253.5 billion rubles, in 2000 it was already 2.35 trillion rubles, and by 2016 it had increased to 28.3 trillion rubles ^[288] . The wholesale trade turnover in 2000 amounted to 4.25 trillion rubles, having increased by 2016 to 61.35 trillion rubles ^[289] .

Until 2014, trade made the largest contribution to GDP, later giving way to first place in real estate services. In 2016, the share of trade in Russia's GDP was 14.4% ^{[290] [291]} . In terms of gross value added, in 2016 trade was in first place in the economy, with a total volume of 12.3 trillion rubles (in the second — manufacturing, with a volume of 10.5 billion) ^[292] . The industry is represented by a huge number of enterprises and organizations, exceeding one third of all enterprises and organizations of the country ^[287] . In 2016, 18.5% of the total employed population worked in the industry ^[293] .

Transport

The transport system of Russia is characterized by a developed transport network, one of the most extensive in the world and including over 86 thousand km of railways, 1.49 million km of roads, 250 thousand km of main pipelines, 100 thousand km of navigable river routes ^{[294 ]} .

The trend of recent years in the transport sector is to reduce its share in the country's GDP: over the decade 2005–2014. the share of transport decreased from 9.3 to 8.7% ^[295] . By 2016, the share has declined even more - to 5.8% ^[296] . At the same time, the number of transport enterprises almost doubled, from 184.5 thousand in 2005 to 313.4 thousand in 2014. About 8% of the population of Russia works in the sector, and the level of wages is 20% higher than the average Russian salary ^[295] .

In 2016, the freight turnover of transport amounted to 5.18 trillion ton-km, of which railway accounted for 45%, pipeline - 48%, automobile - 4.5%, sea - 0.8%, inland water - 1.29%, air - 0.1% ^[297] . Passenger traffic of public transport in 2016 amounted to 519.8 billion passenger-kilometers, of which air transport accounted for 41.5%, bus service - 23.9%, railroad - 23.9%, metro - 8.5% ^[298] .

Telecommunications

As of 2008, in Russia there were 44.2 million landlines (5th place in the world), 187.5 million mobile phones (4th place in the world). As of 2010, there are 59.7 million Internet users in Russia (7th place in the world) ^[299] ).

Russia has one of the most developed mobile communication markets in the world, its volume exceeds 550 billion rubles. Cellular penetration has increased from 5% in 2001 to near-universal coverage at present ^[73] . The cost of cellular services in Russia is one of the lowest in the world ^[300] . Thus, according to a 2007 study by Informa Telecoms & Media , Russia ranked 148 out of 186 countries in terms of the cost of cellular services ^[300] .

Russia is the largest country in Europe by the number of Internet users. At least once a week, 58% of the population uses a computer; about the same part of the population uses the Internet. Although these figures are slightly lower than in the European Union, this gap is rapidly closing. Broadband Internet access has more than 40% of the population of Russia (in 2010 it had 35%, in 2009 - 25%). At the same time, the average speed of a broadband connection in Russia is significantly higher than the world average ^[73] .

Major Russian telecommunications companies:

• Svyazinvest is the largest telecommunications company in Russia and one of the largest in the world ^[301] .
• Mobile TeleSystems is the largest mobile operator in the countries of Eastern Europe and the CIS in terms of the number of subscribers; it is among the ten largest in the world ^{[302] [303]} .
• Vympel Communications - mobile operator
• MegaFon - mobile operator

Investments in fixed assets in the field of communications in Russia - 294 billion rubles (2008). In March 2010, in Buenos Aires, following a visit by D. A. Medvedev to Argentina , a memorandum of understanding was signed on the development of the Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) ^[304] .

Finance and Banking

The monetary unit is the Russian ruble . The ruble is convertible in current and capital transactions ^[305] .

The volume of gross value added in financial activities - 3.2 trillion rubles. (2014). In 2008, the average annual number of people employed in the financial sector in Russia was 1.13 million people.

The capitalization of the Russian stock market amounts to $ 338.5 billion (December 2014) ^[306] , which is less than Google’s capitalization ^[307] ; at the beginning of 2014, the entire capitalization was about $ 498 billion dollars ( Apple's capitalization reached $ 661 billion) ^[308] .

The capitalization of the stock market of the Russian Federation is only 30% of GDP; capitalization in China and Brazil is 70% of GDP, in the USA - 120% of GDP. The ten largest issuers account for 60% of the Russian market and this is the oil and gas industry ^[309] .

The largest Moscow exchange in Russia is an exchange holding created in 2011 as a result of the merger of MICEX (Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange) and RTS (Russian Trading System), leading in terms of trading volume in all segments of the exchange market in the countries of the former USSR and Eastern Europe ^[310] .

Russian banks are part of a two-tier system, the upper level of which is represented by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation , and the lower level by commercial banks .

The net assets of the 892 largest Russian banks as of July 2013 amounted to 49.86 trillion rubles ^[311] .

The foreign exchange reserves of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation as of June 2, 2017 amounted to $ 406.9 billion ^[312] .

State and foreign debt

As of October 1, 2012, Russia's total foreign debt amounted to $ 598 billion (about 30% of GDP), including the state external debt - $ 41 billion, the debt of the monetary authorities - $ 13 billion, the debt of the corporate sector - $ 543 billion ^{[313 ]} .

In relation to the country's GDP, the Russian foreign debt is only 2%, which is one of the lowest in the world. For comparison, after the crisis of 1998, Russia's foreign debt amounted to almost 146% of GDP ^[314] . In the autumn of 1999, Russia's foreign debt (including the debt of the USSR) reached $ 160 billion, but this debt was almost completely repaid in the 2000s.

As of January 1, 2015, Russia's cumulative foreign debt amounted to $ 599.5 billion ^[315] , including the state external debt - $ 41.5 billion. As of July 1, 2015, external debt amounted to $ 556.1 billion ^[316] . As of January 1, 2016, Russia's total foreign debt amounted to $ 515.2 billion ^[317]

On May 1, 2017, the internal debt of the Russian Federation amounted to 6.481 trillion rubles ^[318] , and the total volume of the internal public debt of the Russian Federation was about 8.318 trillion rubles ^[318] .

Tourism

Russia occupies one of the leading places in the world in the field of international tourism. In 2011, Russia received about 20 million international visitors. Russia's revenues from international tourism in 2011 amounted to $ 11.4 billion ^[319] . Outbound tourism is also developed. In 2012, the outbound tourist flow from the Russian Federation amounted to 15332 thousand people ^[320] .

There are over 100 resorts in Russia: resorts on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus ( Sochi , etc.), a group of resorts of the Caucasian Mineral Waters , etc. The popular objects of international and domestic tourism are: St. Petersburg and its environs; Moscow ; Kazan ; cities of the Golden Ring of Russia ; the Volga River is a traditional object of domestic cruise routes; Lake Baikal

In 2007, Russia received 580,000 tourists who are citizens of other countries ^[321] . In 2008, 6.48 thousand travel companies were operating in Russia, which is 1.9 times more than the 2002 figure. In the same year, 4.31 million tourist vouchers with an aggregate value of 117.8 billion rubles were sold to the population. The total number of tourists served by Russian travel agencies in 2008 amounted to 7.67 million people.

Domestic tourism in Russia is also widely represented in the form of sports tourism (hiking, water, mountain). Sports tourism has a wide network of sports societies, largely organized on the basis of educational institutions (schools and universities), a huge number of sports tourist routes of various categories of complexity have been laid across the country.

Social sphere

The volume of gross value added in the field of education - 1.8 trillion rubles (2014). Public expenditures on education in 2005 amounted to 3.8% of GDP, in 2006 - 3.9% of GDP. Private spending on education in 2006 was 0.7% of GDP. The total expenditure on education in 2006 was 4.6% of GDP, in 2007 it was 4.8% of GDP ^[322] . Investments in fixed assets in education in Russia - 174 billion rubles (2008). In 2008, the average annual number of people employed in education in Russia was 5.98 million people.

The volume of gross value added in health care and the provision of social services is 2.5 trillion rubles (2014). The total expenditure on health care in 2006 was 3.9% of GDP (of which 3.2% of GDP was government spending, 0.7% of GDP was private), and in 2007 it was 4.4% GDP ^[322] . Investments in fixed capital in the field of health care and the provision of social services in Russia - 207 billion rubles (2008). In 2008, the average annual number of people employed in health care and the provision of social services in Russia was 4.67 million people.

The volume of gross value added in construction is 3.9 trillion rubles (2014). Investments in fixed assets in construction - 298 billion rubles (2008). In 2008, the average annual number of people employed in the construction industry in Russia was 5.47 million, which is 24% higher than the 1999 figure.

In 2008, the provision of housing for the population of Russia was 22.0 m² / person, which is 16% more than the 1999 figure. Mortgage is actively developing in Russia. If in 2005 the volume of housing mortgage lending was 50 billion rubles, by 2008 it had grown to 630 billion rubles (ie 52 billion per month), and in the first eight months of 2012 it amounted to more than 600 billion rubles (75 billion per month) ^{[323] [324]} .

The digital economy in Russia lags far behind the United States, China, Europe and Japan. If Russia accounted for 1.8% of world GDP in 2018, in world productivity of supercomputers it was only 0.32%. ^[325]

Eurasian Economic Union

Common Economic Space

The idea of ​​building a new international financial center is associated with the SES ^[326] .

One of the stages on the way to the SES is the creation of a customs union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan .

Customs Union of the Russian Federation, Belarus and Kazakhstan

On November 28, 2009, the presidents of Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, D. A. Medvedev , A. G. Lukashenko, and N. A. Nazarbayev, in Minsk signed an agreement on the creation of a single customs area on the territory of these states. After receiving official confirmation from Belarus in June 2010, the customs union will be launched in a trilateral format by the entry into force of the Customs Code of the three countries ^[327] . In July 2010, the customs union entered into force ^[328] .

According to expert estimates, the creation of the Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia will help stimulate economic development and can provide an additional 15% of the GDP of the participating countries by 2015 ^{[329] [330] [331]} . Full use of the potential of the Customs Union may lead to a reduction in the terms of transportation of goods from China to Europe by about 4 times ^[332] .

Ukraine, whose economic relations have suffered greatly in the past five years since 2004, has also been invited to join the customs union ^[333] . The presidents of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan at the EurAsEC 2010 summit in Astana assured that their countries are exploring the possibility of joining the Customs Union ^[328] .

world Trade organisation

On December 16, 2011, after 18-year negotiations , which took place since 1993, Russia was accepted into the WTO , becoming its full member from August 22, 2012, after all the necessary legislative acts were adopted and ratified ^[334] .

Since August 22, 2012, Russia is a member of the World Trade Organization ^[75] .

Foreign trade turnover of Russia in 2014 , according to the Bank of Russia, amounted to $ 805.789 billion, a surplus - $ 189.737 billion.

Russia's trade with non-CIS countries (export / import) - $ 428.929 billion / $ 271.978 billion

Russia's trade with the CIS countries (export / import) - $ 68.834 billion / $ 36.048 billion

Exports from Russia

In 2016, exports from Russia, according to the Bank of Russia, amounted to $ 287.6 billion ^[335] .

Russia is among the world leaders in exports:

• petroleum products , natural gas , nitrogen fertilizers , cast iron, steel semi-finished products, nickel , aluminum , round wood
• oil, weapons , lumber , mixed fertilizers, ammonia
• coal , newsprint , synthetic rubber , potash fertilizer
• grain , wheat , ferrous metals , non-ferrous metals , cellulose , wood-paper goods.

In the service sector, Russia is an exporter of transportation, educational, financial services, receives income from international tourism, etc.

In 2015, excess grain, coupled with a weak ruble, helped increase food exports to a record $ 20 billion, Bloomberg writes. This is more than the country received from the sale of weapons. The total volume of agricultural production grew by 3%, which alleviated the overall economic decline. And while exports increase, imports shrink. Russia has reduced the purchase of foreign food by about 40% since 2013 ^[336] .

Russia's total exports in 2015 fell by one third in dollar terms, crude oil exports by more than half (56%), and imports of goods fell by almost 40%, according to data from the International Trade Center (ITC), based on statistics of the Federal Customs Service (FCS) of Russia and the UN Comtrade database.

In 2015, Russia's total exports amounted to $ 333.5 billion. A year earlier - $ 497.8 billion. In 2013, Russia exported goods and raw materials for $ 527.3 billion.

Most of all, Russian exports to the Netherlands decreased from $ 66.7 billion in 2014 to $ 38.7 billion in 2015. Exports to China decreased from $ 37.4 billion to $ 27.3 billion. Exports to Germany remained at about the same level ($ 24.95 billion in 2014 and $ 24.6 billion in 2015) and in the United States ($ 9.6 billion in 2014 and $ 9.4 billion in 2015). Exports to Turkey grew from $ 14.8 billion in 2014 to $ 19.1 billion in 2015. Exports from Russia to Ukraine decreased from $ 11.3 billion in 2014 to $ 9.1 billion in 2015. Exports of oil and fuel and lubricants from Russia decreased over the year by 51.3% and amounted to $ 168.7 billion in dollar terms in 2015 against $ 346.1 billion a year earlier. At the same time, the value of exported crude oil fell from $ 153.89 billion (2014) to $ 86.2 billion (2015).

Steel exports (from $ 20.6 billion to $ 14.9 billion), grain (from $ 7.1 billion to $ 5.5 billion), mineral fertilizers (from $ 8.99 billion to $ 8.6 billion) decreased.

In 2015, a total of $ 177.3 billion worth of goods were imported to Russia, which is almost $ 110 billion less than a year earlier ($ 286.6 billion). The imports of machinery goods (from $ 52.1 billion to $ 33.37 billion), electrical and electronic equipment (from $ 33.7 billion to 20.6 billion), and cars (from $ 31.4 billion to $ 14.9 billion) fell particularly.

Reduced supplies to Russia of medicines (from $ 12.8 billion to $ 8.4 billion), fruits and vegetables (from $ 5.5 billion to $ 3.8 billion), meat (from $ 5.5 billion to $ 3 billion), alcoholic beverages (from $ 3.1 billion to $ 1.7 billion). Most of all, imports fell in dollar terms from China (from $ 50.8 billion to $ 34.1 billion), Germany (from $ 32.9 billion to $ 19.9 billion), USA (from $ 18.6 billion to $ 10.8 billion).

In 2015, the import of goods from Ukraine (from $ 10.7 billion to $ 5.5 billion), Turkey (from $ 6.7 billion to $ 3.9 billion), Great Britain (from $ 7.8 billion to $ 3.6) decreased in 2015 billion) ^[337] .

Import to Russia

In 2015, imports to Russia amounted to $ 184.5 billion ^[338] .

At the end of 2011, the volume of investments in fixed assets amounted to 10.8 trillion rubles, according to Rosstat. In comparable prices, this is slightly less than in the "peak" 2008. Then, modern Russia reached the level of 1978 in terms of average per capita investment in fixed assets ^[339] .

Foreign investment in Russia

According to Rosstat, as of the end of 2011, the total volume of accumulated foreign investment in the Russian economy was $ 347 billion ^{[340] [341]} . According to the CIA Fact Factbook, as of December 31, 2014, the volume of foreign investment accumulated in Russia was $ 606 billion (16th place in the world) ^[342] .

According to the results of a survey conducted in 2003 by the consulting company AT Kearney , Russia entered the top ten most attractive countries for corporate investors ^[343] . In 2005, Russia received $ 53.65 billion in foreign investment. The leaders were Luxembourg ($ 13.8 billion), the Netherlands ($ 8.9 billion), the United Kingdom ($ 8.6 billion), Cyprus ($ 5.1 billion) and Germany ($ 3 billion). According to the Ministry of Finance of Russia, the net capital inflow to the country in 2007 was to reach $ 80 billion. At the same time, the Ministry of Finance significantly exceeded its initial forecast (approximately $ 40 billion), calculated on the basis of data on capital inflows for the preceding 2006, when this figure reached $ 41 billion ^[344] .

In September 2008, UNCTAD published a report, according to which Russia is in fourth place in the list of countries that transnational corporations consider to be the most attractive places for future foreign investment ^[345] . As noted in the report, Russia's investment attractiveness has noticeably increased compared with the UNCTAD report of 2007 ^[345] . In 2008, the inflow of foreign direct investment in Russia amounted to $ 70 billion - the 5th place among the countries of the world ^[346] .

In March 2010 in Paris, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev at a meeting with representatives of French and Russian business circles reported that the volume of accumulated French investments in Russia exceeds $ 10 billion: “from 2003 to 2008, that is, in the pre-crisis year, our turnover increased 5 times. Indeed, we already have a very decent amount of accumulated French investments. Moreover, about half of them are investments not in primary industries, but in processing ” ^[347] . According to a press release from Boeing for the summer of 2009, for the next 30 years, Boeing’s business development plans in the Russian Federation are about $ 27 billion. They will be invested in the program of cooperation with Russian partners in the field of titanium production, the design and development of civil aircraft, as well as the acquisition of various services and materials ^[348] . Russian Railways (RZD) has placed its debut Eurobond issue worth $ 1.5 billion ^[349] . In the framework of the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum SPIEF-2010, the total volume of investment agreements concluded exceeded 15 billion euros ^[350]

In June 2010, a report by the British auditing company Ernst & Young noted that in 2009 Russia entered the top five countries in terms of the number of new investment projects attracted. According to the report, there is a growing interest of large and medium-sized European companies to the Russian market ^[351] .

According to the Ministry of Economic Development, in 2011 the inflow of foreign direct investment in Russia amounted to $ 65 billion, which is 46% higher than in 2010 ^[341] .

Russian investments

As of the end of 2009, the volume of accumulated investments from Russia abroad amounted to $ 65.1 billion, including to Belarus - $ 2.3 billion, to Ukraine - $ 1.2 billion, to Armenia - $ 754 million, to Uzbekistan - $ 581 million ^[353] .

In 2004–2007, the share of small enterprises in Russia's GDP increased from 12.5 to 13.4% ^[354] . As of January 1, 2009, the contribution of products produced by small enterprises to Russia's aggregate GDP was 21%, which is 4% more compared to data as of January 1, 2008 ^[355] .

As of 2007, the number of small enterprises in Russia was 1.14 million, which is 29% more than in 2000 ^{[356] [357]} . As of January 1, 2009, there were 1.37 million small enterprises in Russia, which is 20% more compared to January 1, 2008 ^[355] .

In 2009, the number of small and medium-sized businesses in Russia increased by 143.6 thousand ^[67] . As of January 1, 2009, the average total number of employees employed in small enterprises in Russia was 11.4 million people, which is 12% more compared with data as of January 1, 2008 ^[355] .

Small business is a significant state support. So, in 2008 the volume of state support for small businesses amounted to 3.5 billion rubles, in 2009 - almost 50 billion rubles ^[358] .

State program "Information Society"

The State Program “Information Society” for 2011–2018 has been developed. Implementation is planned since 2011. The program will combine federal targeted programs , departmental and regional programs in the field of information. Lead program developer at the Ministry of Communications . The estimated funding from the federal budget is 375 billion rubles. From extrabudgetary sources it is planned to attract the same amount ^[359] .

Socio-economic development of the Far East and the Baikal region

At the end of 2009, the Strategy for Socio-Economic Development of the Far East and the Baikal Region until 2025 was adopted ^[360] . In the next ten years, investment in the development of the region will amount to at least 3.3 trillion rubles ^[360] . The main part of the funds will be directed to the development of infrastructure: the construction of gas and oil pipelines, the construction and modernization of roads, seaports and airports, the development of a number of industries. Taking into account the approved strategy for the development of the Far East until 2025, these investment plans are almost tripled to 9 trillion rubles ^[360] .

In preparation for the APEC Summit 2012 , more than 150 design and contract organizations are involved in construction work. Further development of the Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM) is envisaged ^[360] . Thus, according to estimates of a number of large companies operating in the Far East, the volume of freight to the eastern ports of the Khabarovsk Territory can grow to 108 million tons by ^{360 [360]} .

Development of resorts in the North Caucasus

It is planned to spend 451.44 billion rubles on the development of ski resorts, tourist and transport infrastructure of the North Caucasus until 2020 (the total area of ​​the five resorts is 4 thousand hectares, 104.5 thousand places for tourists, two new airports). Sberbank , Morgan Stanley , JPMorgan , Citi , Allianz are planned to be involved in the project. The amount of investment is two times more than the preparation for Sochi for the 2014 Olympics ^[361] .

So in 2011 it became known that the French state-owned bank Caisse des Depots et Consignations agreed to allocate 10 billion euros for the construction of five new ski resorts in the North Caucasus ^[362] , there are also agreements with other countries, for example, with Korea Korea Wester Power (1 billion investment) ^[362] .

Creating federal gambling zones

The total cost of projects "gambling reservations" is estimated at 727.5 billion rubles. ($ 31.2 billion). Projects include the construction of casinos, hotels, water parks, theaters and concert halls, spa-salons, shops, restaurants, sports arenas and resort-sports complexes, as well as the construction of infrastructure, including the construction of airports in some areas ^{[363] [364]} . Yantarnaya is a total investment of 270.9 billion rubles ^[365] . (According to other estimates, 600 billion over 7-10 years ^[366] ). Azov-City - 415.9 billion rubles ^{[364] [365]} . "Siberian coin" - 28.18 billion rubles ^{[364] [365]} . "Primorye" - 12.88 billion rubles ^{[364] [365]} .

The average income of the population of Russia in 2018 was 32635 rubles a month (about $ 520), the average monthly salary was 43,400 rubles ($ 690), the average pension was 13,360 rubles ($ 210). The total cash income of the population of Russia in 2018 amounted to 58 trillion rubles ($ 920 billion). ^[367]

The main types of income of the population of Russia are: wages (including hidden) - 66%, social benefits - 19%, business income - 8%, property income - 5%, other income - 2% (according to 2018) . ^[367]

The structure of using incomes of the population of Russia: the purchase of goods and services - 75%, obligatory payments and various contributions - 12%, savings - 8%, purchase of foreign currency - 4%, money growth in the hands of the population - 2% ). ^[368]

In April 2010, the average cash income per capita in Russia was 18,721 rubles ^[369] . In September 2012, the average income of the population was 22.3 thousand rubles, the average salary was 26.5 thousand rubles ^[370] .

Salaries

In terms of average wages, Russia is ranked 1st among the CIS countries ^[371] and 4th among 15 post-Soviet republics.

The average wage (gross) in Russia in April 2019 was 4,830 rubles. (€ 672.50 euros) and (net, after deducting the tax of 13%) 41786 rubles. (€ 585.01 euros) ^{[372] [373]} The median salary in the same month was 34335 rubles. The average salary in non-state institutions is significantly higher than in state and municipal ones (56477 and 39640 rubles, respectively). ^[374]

Minimum wage

The minimum wage from May 1, 2018 is 11,163 rubles. (147.68 euros) and (net, after deducting the tax of 13%) and 9711.81 rubles. (128.43 euros). ^[375] from January 1, 2019, the minimum wage will be 11280 rubles. (149.17 euros) and (net, after deducting the tax of 13%) 9813.6 rub. (129.79 euros). ^{[376] [377]} The Keitz index (the percentage of the minimum wage of the average national salary) in Russia as of April 2019 is about 23.49%. Such a low Keitz index (in the OECD countries , as a rule, does not fall below 40%) leads to working poor, widespread corruption and poverty, lack of material security of the population as a whole and socially vulnerable groups in particular, extensive shadow economy, high Gini coefficient , inhibits the growth of wages, allowances, pensions, social benefits in the country does not encourage employers to work, increase labor productivity, introduce new technologies, slow down the growth of production of goods from value, retards the growth of the purchasing power of the population, retards the growth of the domestic national consumer market, leads to low efficiency, excessive bureaucracy and public distrust of state institutions. ^{[378] [379] [380] [381] [382] [383] [384] [385] [386] [387] [388] [389] [390] [391] [392]}

Salaries of high-ranking civil servants

In 2016, Russian President Vladimir Putin earned 8,858,000 rubles ( € 123,042.73) according to the official income statement. ^{[393] [394]} In 2017, Russian President Vladimir Putin earned 18,728,268 rubles ( € 260,146.44) in accordance with the official income declaration. ^{[393] [394]} According to official data, Russian Prime Minister Dmitry A. Medvedev earned 8,565,000 rubles in 2017 ( € 118,972.79). ^[393]

Revenues of the Mayor of Moscow may vary. They are published on the official website of the Moscow Government. According to official figures, the mayor of Moscow earned 6 million 456 thousand rubles in 2016 ( € 90,927.71). ^{[393] [395]} In 2017, the official income was 6,531,129 rubles ( € 90,721.15 per year and approximately 541,000 rubles per month, € 7,514.80). ^{[393] [395]} This is 75,000 rubles more than in 2016. ^[393] Among the deputy mayors of Moscow, Sobyanin, the biggest revenues in 2017 were among the head of the transport complex of the capital, Maxim Liksutov - more than 219.6 million rubles ( € 3,050,370.60). ^[393]

According to official data, the governor of St. Petersburg, Georgy Poltavchenko, earned in 2016 6,183,658 rubles ( € 85,894.57). According to official figures, from January 1 to December 31, 2017, Georgy Poltavchenko earned 5,427,397 rubles 4 kopecks ( € 75,389.68 per year and about 452,250 rubles per month, € 6,282.01). ^{[396] [397]} According to official data, the vice-governor of St. Petersburg Alexander Govorunov earned 13,881,411 rubles in 2017 ( € 192,820.80). ^[397] But it should be borne in mind that the item “income” in this case includes not only salary, but also other sources of money - fees, sale of property or real estate. According to official figures, Sergei Movchan earned the least among vice-governors, his income was 2,623,810 rubles ( € 36,446.23 a year and 218,650 rubles a month, € 3,037.17). ^[397]

Wealthy population

According to the Boston Consulting Group, in 2006 in Russia there were 440,000 households with assets of more than $ 100 thousand, the total wealth of households increased by an average of 22.5% per year, at the end of 2006 it was $ 540 billion ^[398] . 60.1% of assets Russian households hold in cash (Portuguese - 59.5%, Czech - 62.5%, Hungarian - 72%) ^[399] .

According to Renaissance Capital Investment Management, previously published data suggests that about 7 million households in Russia have incomes of more than $ 30,000 per year, their incomes grew 65% last year, and incomes of millionaire households grew slightly faster. For rich households in Russia is characterized by conservative investment of funds, the share of risky investments does not exceed 30% ^[399] .

In 2007, Rosgosstrakh published a study of the incomes of affluent residents of Russia ^[400] . According to this study, there were 5 million families in Russia with an income of more than $ 30 thousand per year ^[400] . If we assume that the average family size in Russia was 2.7 people, then there were about 13.5 million people in Russia with high incomes ^[400] . Millionaire families were 160 thousand, and families with incomes above $ 5 million - 12 thousand ^[400] . 80% of millionaire families lived in Moscow and the Moscow Region ^[400] . The total number of wealthy Russians in 2006–2007 increased by 60%, the group with an income of $ 30–100 thousand — by 71% more noticeably than the rest — increased by 71%, the most highly profitable group with income over $ 5 million, increased by half ^[400] .

In 2007, Natalya Akindinova, Executive Director of the Development Center, stated that about 50 thousand families live in the Moscow region with an income of over $ 1 million ^[400] .

In 2007, Forbes magazine claimed that the total state of the 14 richest citizens of Russia was 26% of the country's GDP ^[401] . According to Forbes, as of September 2007, the total wealth of the 100 richest Russians increased by 36% over the year ^[400] . According to Forbes, from May 2008 to February 2009, the number of Russian dollar billionaires decreased from 110 to 32 people, and their general condition decreased by almost 5 times ^[402] .

In 2011–2012, the number of Russian dollar billionaires is about 100 people, with an aggregate fortune of $ 499 billion ^{[403] [404]} .

Poverty

According to the IV quarter of 2009, the subsistence minimum is 5,144 rubles / month ^[369] . The share of the population with incomes below the subsistence minimum is 13.1% (2009) ^[369] .

World Bank Poverty Assessment Report 2004

On September 22, 2004, the World Bank (WB) presented its “Poverty Assessment Report” in Russia. According to his estimates, for the period from 1997 to 1999, poverty in Russia increased from 24.1% of the population (35.3 million people) to 41.5% (60.5 million). Then, from 1999 to 2002, Russia managed to reduce poverty by more than half, to 19.6%. Unemployment during this time decreased from 13.2 to 8.2% of the working-age population, while the average salary increased by 15%.

The poor in Russia are most often able-bodied residents of villages and small towns with children. The proportion of people living below the official poverty line among education, culture and health workers is very high. At the same time, WB experts and Russian statistics use different methods for determining the level of poverty. Russian specialists estimate the proportion of poor people by monthly income. For example, in the second quarter of 2004, the official subsistence minimum was 2363 rubles. per month per person, and incomes below this level were 29.8 million people - 20.8% of the population. The World Bank considers this methodology to be not entirely correct and proposes to evaluate poverty not by income level (about which people do not always tell the truth), but by consumption level. Therefore, in 2002, according to the WB, 19.6% of the Russian population suffered from poverty, and according to the Russian government, 25%.

According to the World Bank, 8% of transport subsidies go to 20% of the country's poorest citizens, while 20% of the richest receive 30% of such subsidies. And the amount of housing benefits received by the richest is 2.1 times more than the assistance given to the poor.

Income stratification

One of the significant problems of modern Russian society is a large economic inequality among citizens. The table shows data on the ratio of incomes of 10% of the richest citizens of Russia to incomes of the 10% of the poorest ( decile ratio ) ^{[405] [406] [407] [408]} :

For comparison, the lowest decile coefficient is 3-4 in the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Finland and Sweden. In Germany, Austria and France, this coefficient varies from 5 to 7, in the USA it is equal to 15 ^[409] , in Brazil - 39 ^[410] . По утверждению журналиста Анны Гараненко, экономисты считают оптимальным соотношение от 5 до 7. В 2007 году глава Института экономики РАН Руслан Гринберг заявил: «Как только децильный коэффициент достигает 10, в стране появляются условия для социальных беспорядков. Это правило не действует разве что в Америке, где коэффициент держится на уровне 10—12. Но там это считается нормальным, поскольку философия американцев отличается от нашей. Там считается: если ты бедный, то сам виноват» ^[411] .

Расслоение по финансовым активам

С 1990 года в России значительно возросло неравенство в благосостоянии (намного больше, чем в Китае и странах Восточной Европы). ^{[131] [412]} Credit Suisse охарактеризовал экономическое неравенство в России, как настолько экстремальное по сравнению с другими странами, что оно «заслуживает того, чтобы быть помещенным в отдельную категорию». ^{[412] [413]}

По данным на июнь 2010 года, численность экономически активного населения в России составляла 76,1 млн человек (около 54 % общей численности населения), из них занятые — 71,2 млн человек, безработные — 5,0 млн человек ^[414] . По данным на август 2010 года, общее число замещённых рабочих мест в организациях (без субъектов малого предпринимательства) составляло 36,6 млн человек ^[414] . На малых предприятиях (без микропредприятий) численность работников списочного состава (без внешних совместителей) на 2009 год составляла 5,7 млн человек ^[415] .

Уровень безработицы — 5,2 % (сентябрь 2012 г.) ^[416] .

В 2008 году удельный вес численности женщин в общей численности занятых в экономике России составлял 49,2 %, что на 1,2 процентных пункта превышало показатель 1999 года. По данным на 2008 год, средний возраст занятых в экономике России составляет 39,7 лет.

К 2016 в российской экономике четко обозначился ряд парадоксов: первый — работающие нищие ^[417] , второй — безработные мужчины в возрасте 25-35 лет ^[418] , занимающиеся домашним хозяйством, третий — работающие пенсионеры ^[419] , и четвёртый — крайне высокая и растущая смертность среди мужчин трудоспособного возраста ^[420]

As of the end of 2015, the value of fixed assets in Russia amounted to 161 trillion rubles. ^{[421] The} depreciation of fixed assets was 48%. ^[422]

The sectoral structure of fixed assets by branches of the economy (as of the end of 2015) ^[423] :

• transport and communications - 26.4%
• operations with real estate, rent and provision of services - 23.8%
• mining and quarrying - 11.5%
• processing industries - 9.4%
• production and distribution of electricity, gas and water - 8.1%
• other sectors of the economy - 20.8%

Depreciation of fixed assets by branches of the economy in% (at the end of 2015): ^[424]

• agriculture, hunting and forestry - 41.6
• fishing, fish farming - 52.3
• mining and quarrying - 55.4
• processing industries - 47.7
• production and distribution of electricity, gas and water - 44.5
• construction - 50.4
• trade ^[425] - 39.6
• hotels and restaurants - 37.6
• transport and communications - 55.8
• financial activities - 40.5
• real estate transactions, rental and provision of services - 38.1
• public administration and military security; compulsory social security - 48.2
• education - 48.0
• Health and social services - 53.9
• provision of other community, social and personal services - 40.8

In a number of Russian cities, international economic forums are held periodically. Their main participants are leaders of Russian and foreign largest companies and other representatives of the business community , political leaders, public and political figures. The key mission of these forums is to be a practical tool for business, allowing to develop economic policy at the appropriate level: all-Russian, regional, international.

The list of economic forums in Russia:

• St. Petersburg International Economic Forum
• Gaidar Forum
• Moscow Economic Forum
• Eastern Economic Forum
• Krasnoyarsk Economic Forum

Oil and gas dependence

As one of the world's largest oil and gas producing countries, Russia receives significant revenues from the use of its resources. Oil and natural gas production accounts for 10.2% of Russia's GDP (data for 2014) ^[426] . Oil and natural gas account for 44% of the volume of exports of goods (according to data for August 2012) ^[427] .

Some of the oil and gas revenues are taken into the budget system of the country in the form of taxes and fees. At the same time, the degree of withdrawal varied over time. Thus, in the course of a large-scale tax reform implemented in Russia in the 2000s, the system of taxation of the commodity sector was radically changed: the mechanism of export duties was reconfigured and the mineral extraction tax was introduced, which increased the share of oil and gas rented by the state budget, from less than 40% in 2000 to 84% in 2005 ^[428] .

At the same time, over 98% of all taxes on the use of natural resources and 100% of all revenues from foreign economic activity (including export duties on oil, oil products, etc.) go to the federal budget, but not to the regional ones. Therefore, the share of “raw” revenues in the federal budget is relatively high compared with the same share in the consolidated budget (it includes, in addition to the federal budget, all regional budgets and budgets of state extra-budgetary funds). So, if the federal budget for 2008 comprised 50% of oil and gas revenues, then the same indicator for the consolidated budget of the same year was slightly more than 30% ^{[22] [429]} .

The change in world oil prices is one of many factors affecting the growth of the Russian economy. The rise in world oil prices has both a positive effect on the Russian economy and a negative one. The rise in prices has a positive effect on the state of the balance of payments, increasing the value of exports. Also, price increases generally have a positive effect on the dynamics of the Russian stock market ^[430] . At the same time, economists note that the rise in oil prices exerts a strengthening pressure on the ruble exchange rate, causing an increase in the money supply and the emergence of monetary inflation. This, to a certain extent, affects the decrease in the competitiveness of domestic producers, because imports are understandably cheaper ^{[431] [432]} .

There are various assessments of the role of changes in oil prices for economic growth in Russia.

After the collapse of the USSR in the 1990s, the role of scientific and technical complexes in the Russian economy increased markedly; in 1999, the share of scientific and technical complexes accounted for 12% of Russia's industrial production and 3% of those employed in it. In a report prepared by a number of economists, it was noted that increasing the role of scientific and technical complexes in the country's economy for non-specialists and a number of politicians was an occasion to talk about strengthening the mono-commodity orientation of the Russian economy, turning it into a kind of “banana republic” ^[433] .

In the 2000s, the dependence of the state of the Russian economy on oil prices decreased, in particular, thanks to the creation of the Stabilization Fund ^[434] . In 2003, Expert magazine wrote that a too strong link between Russian economic growth and oil prices is a fallacy. The magazine cited IMF calculations, according to which the contribution of oil prices is no more than 40% of Russian growth, the remaining 60% is the result of growth in the domestic market ^[435] . According to the Ministry of Economic Development, the contribution of oil prices to Russia's GDP growth in 2007 was 1.4% of 8.1% ^[436] .

The head of the HSE Evgeny Yasin notes that in different periods the effect of the increase in oil prices was different. Also, economists note that now the growth of the Russian economy is quite resistant to a possible change in oil prices. After all, super-profits from oil more than half leave the economy and accumulate in state reserve funds, that is, they are sterilized, and in general the impact of price increases is minimal, since most of the surplus funds coming from oil go directly to reserve funds ^[431] .

A number of journalists, politicians and economists hold an opinion on the strong “raw material” dependence of the Russian economy ^{[437] [438] [439] [440]} . Referring to the Institute for Economic Analysis, the Economist magazine in 2008 wrote that the share of oil and gas in Russia's GDP has more than doubled since 1999 , and by mid-2008 it was more than 30% ^[441] . According to Igor Shuvalov , expressed in January 2010, after the 2008 economic crisis, the dependence of the Russian economy on raw materials increased ^[442] .

On June 18, 2016, the head of the Presidential Administration of Russia, Sergei Ivanov, stated that “today two thirds of the budget revenues of the Russian Federation are not oil and gas” ^[443] .

Environmental Protection

Rostec Corporation plans to build waste incineration plants in Russia with outdated technology that is extremely dangerous for public health. ONF experts are extremely negative about the environmental consequences of this project ^{[444] [445]}

Government spending

According to sociologist Z.A. Kondratieva, the main disadvantage of the Russian federal budget compared to the state budgets of France and Germany is the low share of health care expenditures (2.6% in 2017) and education (3.7% in Russia, 19.9 % in France), with much higher funding for national defense (17.2% in Russia, in France 8.4%, in Germany 11.2%), national security and law enforcement (11.5%). ^[446]

In 2019, the budget surplus amounted to 1.885 trillion rubles ( 1.8% of GDP ). The last time the surplus was 2011, all subsequent to this year were in short supply. Most of the growth was due to an increase in the levied taxes (including an increase in VAT from 18% to 20%) and the reform of the pension system. ^[447]

According to the forecast of the International Monetary Fund , published in April 2019, Russia's GDP growth in 2019 will be 1.6%, in 2020 - 1.7%, in 2021-2024, GDP will grow at a rate of 1.5-1.7 % in year. The nominal volume of GDP will grow from $ 1.6 trillion in 2017 to $ 1.9 trillion in 2024, GDP at PPPs - from $ 4.0 trillion to $ 5.2 trillion. Inflation in 2019 will be 5.0% and then will decrease to 4.0% by 2023. ^[448]

It is believed that the Russian economy is experiencing stagnation ^[449] .

So, the British weekly The Economist in May 2008 wrote that the oil industry in Russia is facing problems. It was also said that in the 2000s Russia was flooded with a stream of petrodollars, which gave Russia more influence in the political arena and disguised economic problems ^[441] .

In 2012, The Economist magazine expressed the opinion that the Russian economy needs “a shift in the balance towards new companies, small enterprises, services and the manufacturing industry”, but “corruption, weak protection of property rights, the tax system, the dominance of bureaucracy and the absence of the rule of law make development is almost impossible ” ^[450] .

In 2013, The Economist wrote about a sharp decline in GDP growth and the almost complete absence of growth in direct investment and industrial production. The magazine explained this by the fact that significant revenues from hydrocarbon exports were pumped, for the most part, into “inefficient” projects of state corporations ^[449]  . The magazine also notes that by the beginning of the 2010s, the reserve of unused capacity of the Soviet period was almost exhausted, but there was no growth in investment in the industrial sector. The magazine explains the lack of investment by the lack of guarantees of property rights of private investors ^[449] .

According to the Financial Times , the growth rate of the Russian economy will be slower than the average global economic growth over the next 16 years ( 2013 data). The newspaper cites the opinion of analysts who believe that the reason for the slowdown in growth is “ Moscow ’s inability to improve the investment climate and give more freedom to the private sector ” ^[451] .

The BBC , referring to its experts, considers the future of the Russian economy to be vague. Thus, according to the financier J. O'Neill, the Russian economy is “ too dependent on oil and gas, affected by corruption, and there is no credible legal framework for doing business ” ^[452] . Economist Yakov Moiseevich Mirkin believes that the Russian model of the economy has “exhausted itself,” and in the field of microfinance a bubble has formed that will surely burst with huge scandals ^[453] .

In the opinion of Valery Solovey , a Russian historian, political analyst, journalist and public figure, the state elites who govern the country do not carry out the necessary market reforms to modernize the country's economy in order to continue to “feed” at the expense of the modern, profitable personal model of the economy and the most important thing is to curb the growth of an economically independent middle class in the country.

Russia ranks 31st in the world in terms of the ease of doing business index prepared by the World Bank Group . ^[454]

In the ranking of world competitiveness, compiled in 2017 by the analytical group of the World Economic Forum , Russia was ranked 38th out of 137 countries ^[455] .

In the Fraser Institute’s economic freedom rating for 2014, Russia ranked 93rd ^{[456] [457]} .

According to the Human Capital Index, compiled by analysts of the World Economic Forum in 2014, Russia ranked 26th ^[458] .

According to the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom , Russia in 2016 had the 153rd place out of 179 countries ^[459] .

In the ranking of , which shows how certain countries succeeded in using inventions of scientists and engineers in practice, Russia ranked 55th out of 146 countries in 2012 ^{[460] [461 ]} .

According to the ICT development index compiled by the International Telecommunication Union , in 2015 Russia was in 45th place out of 155 countries ^{[462] [463]} .

According to the human development index, Russia in 2015 was in 49th place in the list of 188 countries ^[464] . For comparison, in 1995 Russia was in 72nd place ^[465] , in 1988 the USSR was in 26th place ^[466] .

In the 10th disability rating of 2014, Russia ranked 85th out of 178 countries, falling into the High Warning category ^[467] . In the ten years since the publication of the first ranking, Russia has shown a significant improvement (“Significant Improvement”) ^[468] .