Aspartame (L-Aspartyl-L-phenylalanine) - sweetener , sugar substitute, food additive E951. It was first synthesized in 1965, the term of the patent ended in 1987 in Europe and 1992 in the United States [1] .
Aspartame | |
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Are common | |
Systematic name | N- La-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine 1-methyl ester |
Chem. formula | C 14 H 18 N 2 O 5 |
Physical properties | |
Molar mass | 294.301 g / mol |
Density | 1,347 g / cm³ |
Thermal properties | |
T. melt. | 246–247 ° C |
Chemical properties | |
Water solubility | moderate |
Classification | |
Reg. CAS number | 22839-47-0 |
Pubchem | |
Reg. EINECS number | |
SMILES | |
Inchi | |
Codex Alimentarius | |
CHEBI | |
Chemspider | |
Content
Properties
Aspartame is about 160–200 times sweeter than sugar , odorless, highly soluble in water. Although this sweetener, like carbohydrates and proteins , has a caloric content of 4 kcal / g, a small amount of aspartame is needed to create a sweet taste, therefore its contribution to the caloric content of food is not taken into account. In comparison with sugar, the taste sensation of sweetness from aspartame appears more slowly and remains longer. When heated, aspartame is destroyed, therefore unsuitable for sweetening products subjected to heat treatment.
Application
Aspartame is available under various trademarks, both separately and as part of mixtures of sugar substitutes. Aspartame is the second most popular sweetener and is part of a wide variety of foods and beverages, including soft drinks, hot chocolate, chewing gum, candy, yogurt, sugar substitutes, vitamins, anti-cough tablets and much more. Commercial names: Sweetly, Slastilin, Nutrisvit [2] , Shugafri.
Also available as tablets (1 tablet of sweetness corresponds to 3.2 g of sugar) and is used for diabetes , obesity and other diseases that require limiting or eliminating sugar intake [3] .
History
Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter, a chemist who worked for the Searle Company (GD Searle & Company). Schlatter synthesized aspartame as an intermediate product in the preparation of gastrin used in the treatment of gastric ulcer [4] . He discovered the sweet taste of aspartame by chance [5] , licked a finger on which aspartame fell [6] . The first began to use aspartame the United States and the United Kingdom - since 1981. Produced under various trademarks (for example, Equal Original (Spoonful), NutraSweet, AminoSweet, Canderel), aspartame is declared an alternative to sugar, which allows not to gain weight and is not officially a carcinogenic (what was previously suspected of using an artificial sweetener - saccharin ).
FDA Position
The US Food and Drug Administration considers aspartame safe as a sweetener:
Considering the results of a large number of studies on the safety of aspartame, including five previously conducted negative long-term studies of carcinogenicity, a recently published large study of epidemiology with a negative relationship between aspartame use and the occurrence of tumors, the FDA has found no negative results from a series of three studies on transgenic mice. its previous conclusion that aspartame is safe as a general purpose food sweetener.
Original Text (eng.)It has been noted that there has been a prioritized report on the use of a large number of studies. The assassination of the sweetener in food.
Metabolism and safety
Aspartame in the human body breaks down into two amino acids and methanol . Amino acids are an integral part of proteins and not only not dangerous, but even necessary for the body. Methanol in large quantities is a toxic substance, which often gives rise to discussions about the harm of aspartame. However, the production of methanol with food significantly exceeds the amount formed from aspartame. As a result of the metabolism of aspartame, 10% (by weight) of aspartame is converted to methanol. Thus, as a result of consuming 1 liter of the beverage sweetened with aspartame (yield 56-60 mg of methanol per liter) less methanol is supplied to the body than when drinking natural juice (up to 160 mg per liter). The content of methanol in juices varies depending on many factors, various studies have shown the content of 1-43 mg / l, 10-80 mg / l, 12-640 mg / l; the average is considered to be 140 mg / l. In addition to direct receipt from food, mainly from fresh vegetables, fruits and juices, methanol is also formed in the human body as a result of metabolism (in particular, from fruit pectin ), for example, 142 mg of endogenous methanol is metabolized from a liter of tomato juice (in addition to 159 mg contained in this juice initially). On average, 0.4-1.4 g of endogenous methanol is produced per day in the human body. [7] [8] [9]
Taking aspartame in doses of up to 34 mg per kilogram of body weight (one time) or 70 mg / kg (in 8 doses) did not lead to the appearance of methanol in the blood at detectable concentrations [7] .
A large number of toxicological and clinical studies of aspartame confirm its safety, if the daily dose does not exceed 50 mg per kilogram of weight [6] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] . In Europe, a maximum is set: 40 mg per kilogram of mass per day [15] , in the USA - 50 mg / kg [16] . Almost 40 mg / kg of body weight for a person weighing 70 kg means about 266 tablets of synthetic sweetener or 26.6 liters of dietary cola in one day.
In 2015, the results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study conducted in the UK were published. 48 people who, according to their words, are sensitive to aspartame, were compared to 48 people of the same age and sex, who are not sensitive to aspartame. For seven days, some of them ate a snack containing 100 mg of aspartame, others a snack without aspartame. The test subjects were not informed whether they were receiving placebo or aspartame. The subjects were evaluated by 14 symptoms, biochemical and metabonomic measurements were taken. No psychological or metabolic signs of an acute adverse reaction to aspartame could be detected [17] .
Consumption of products containing the amino acid phenylalanine is contraindicated for people with a rare hereditary disease phenylketonuria , therefore in many countries, including Russia, products containing aspartame must have the warning “Contains a source of phenylalanine” [18] .
Criticism
In an analysis published in April 2008 by the European Journal of Dietary Nutrition, South African scientists assessed the potential impact on the brain of not only one of the components of aspartame, methanol, but also other elements (phenylalanine and aspartic acid) [19] . In their analysis of the effects of phenylalanine, the authors describe in detail the ability of this essential amino acid to interfere with brain chemistry, including its ability to reduce the level of key brain chemical compounds, such as serotonin (which may adversely affect various areas, including mood, behavior, sleep, and appetite) [19] . The authors also note that phenylalanine has the ability to disrupt amino acid metabolism, nerve function and hormonal balance in the body. They claim that aspartame can destroy nerve cells, and this in turn can cause Alzheimer's disease [19] . However, the Commission of Experts of the European Agency for Food Safety noted that the findings in this review are partly based on sources from the Internet and, therefore, are not acceptable from the point of view of science. Also, these experts agreed that significant scientific errors were made in this critical review, which led to unfounded and misleading interpretations [20] .
On the Internet and consumer journals, many statements have been published regarding the neurotoxic effects of aspartame, which lead to neurological or psychological symptoms, such as seizures, headaches, and mood changes [6] . A review of the biochemistry of aspartame did not find evidence that the doses consumed lead to any neurotoxic effects [21] . Comprehensive reviews did not find evidence that aspartame is the cause of these symptoms. [6] [20] [7] . The review of the pediatric literature did not reveal any significant reasons to conclude that there is an aspartame contribution to the formation of such neuropsychiatric conditions as panic attacks, mood changes, hallucinations, ADHD or seizures. [22]
Production
Aspartame is produced in various regions: China, EU, Japan, Korea, USA. The volume of world production for 2003 was 13.2 thousand tons, about 528 million euros. Most of the demand is the USA [23] .
Links
- ↑ Shapiro, Eben . Nutrasweet's Bitter Fight (November 19, 1989).
- ↑ Insidious sweetener . Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 2002
- ↑ Aspartame . Encyclopedia of drugs and pharmaceutical goods . Radar Patent. - Instruction, application and formula.
- ↑ Mazur, Robert H. Aspartic acid-based sweetners // Symposium: sweeteners. - Westport, CT: AVI Publishing, 1974. - P. 159–163. - ISBN 0-87055-153-1 .
- ↑ Lewis, Ricki. Discovery: windows on the life sciences. - Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2001. - P. 4. - ISBN 0-632-04452-7 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Magnuson BA, Burdock GA, Doull J., et al . Aspartame: a safety assessment, and toxicological and epidemiological studies (Eng.) // Crit. Rev. Toxicol. : journal. - 2007. - Vol. 37 , no. 8 - P. 629-727 . - DOI : 10.1080 / 10408440701516184 . - PMID 17828671 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 Butchko H et al. Aspartame: Review of Safety // Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. - 2002. - № 35. - p. 1—93. - DOI : 10.1006 / rtph.2002.1542 .
- ↑ Lindinger, W. , Taucher, J. , Jordan, A. , Hansel, A. , Vogel, W. Endogenous production. (English) // Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research. - Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 1997. - Vol. 21, no. 5 - P. 939-943. - DOI : 10.1111 / j.1530-0277.1997.tb03862.x . - PMID 9267548 .
- ↑ International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS), 1997. Environmental Health Criteria 196, Methanol. The International Organization of the International Health Organization and the World Health Organization of the United Nations Environment Program.
- ↑ GAO 1987. Food Additive Approval Process Followed for Aspartame United States General Accounting Office, GAO / HRD-87-46, June 18, 1987
- ↑ GAO 1986. "Six Former HHS Employees' Involvement in Aspartame's Approval." United States General Accounting Office, GAO / HRD-86-109BR, July 1986.
- Canada Health Canada : Aspartame - Artificial Sweeteners Neopr . The appeal date is November 8, 2008. Archived on February 17, 2012.
- Stand Food Standards Australia New Zealand : Food Standards Australia New Zealand: Aspartame (September 2007) (Not available link) . The date of circulation is November 8, 2008. Archived October 21, 2007.
- ↑ Henkel, John . Sugar Substitutes: Americans Opt for Sweetness and Lite , FDA Consumer (November – December 1999). The appeal date is January 29, 2009.
- ↑ Renwick, Andrew. The intake of intense sweeteners - an update review (Undefined) // Food Additives & Contaminants. - 2006. - V. 23 . - pp . 327—338 . - DOI : 10.1080 / 02652030500442532 .
- ↑ Aspartame and Cancer: Questions and Answers . National Cancer Institute (September 12, 2006). The appeal date was August 29, 2011. Archived February 12, 2009.
- ↑ Sathyapalan T, Thatcher NJ, Hammersley R, Rigby AS, Pechlivanis A, Gooderham NJ, Holmes E, Le Roux CW, Atkin SL, Courts F. (eng.) = Aspartame sensitivity? A double blind randomized crossover study // PLOS One . - Public Library of Science , 2015. - Vol. 10 , iss. 3 - DOI : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0116212 . - PMID 25786106 .
- ↑ clause 2.21.4. "with the indication on the labels of the composition of sweeteners, ... When selling sweeteners, ... containing aspartame -" Contains a source of phenylalanine ". // SanPiN 2.3.2.1293-03" Hygienic requirements for the use of food additives "
- ↑ 1 2 3 P Humphries, E Pretorius and H Naudé. (English) = Direct and indirect cellular effects of aspartame on the brain // European Journal of Clinical Nutrition . - London: Stockton Press London: Nature Pub. Group, 2008 Apr. - Vol. 4 , iss. 62 . P. 451-462 . - ISSN 0954-3007 . - DOI : 10.1038 / sj.ejcn.1602866 . - PMID 17684524 .
- ↑ 1 2 EFSA National Experts. Report of the meetings on aspartame with national experts . EFSA (May 2010). The appeal date is January 9, 2011.
- ↑ Lajtha, A. Aspartame consumption: a lack of effects on neural function (Eng.) // The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry: journal. - 1994. - Vol. 5 , no. 6 - P. 266-283 . - DOI : 10.1016 / 0955-2863 (94) 90032-9 .
- In "Inactive" ingredients in pharmaceutical products: update (subject review). American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs (English) // Pediatrics : journal. - American Academy of Pediatrics , 1997. - February ( vol. 99 , no. 2 ). - P. 268-278 . - DOI : 10.1542 / peds.99.2.268 . - PMID 9024461 .
- ↑ https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/stevia/downloads/World_Market_Sugar.pdf