Lebanon History

The inhabitants of Canaan, according to Egyptian sources of the XIII century. BC e.

The territory now occupied by Lebanon has been inhabited since the Paleolithic . During archaeological excavations in Sayd (Sidon) at the site of Sidon II, stone artifacts related to the Acheulean culture were found. Artifacts from Jubb-Jannin and the Syrian sites of Latamne and El Meirah distinguish a special type of Acheulean culture of the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean), also known as the “faculty of Latamne” ^[1] .

The remains of people of a modern type discovered in the cave of Kzar-Akil , named Egbert and Ethelruda, date back to the age of 39.2-40.8 thousand years. n and 41.7-42.4 thousand liters. n respectively ^[2] .

Already 12 thousand years ago, when half of Europe was covered with a glacier, in the territory of Lebanon there was a Mesolithic Natufi culture , whose representatives were the first on Earth to start baking bread and settle in dugouts with reed conical roofs. Genetic data suggest that Natufians, as carriers of Haplogroup J2, were the ancestors of the Phoenicians and Canaanites (the pre-Jewish population of Palestine) and the substrate of modern Lebanese. 9 thousand years ago, Natufians were able to create brick buildings ( Dokkeramichesky Neolithic A ) and domesticate cattle ( Dokeramichesky Neolithic B ).

Sidon III site finds include macrolithic finds from the Neolithic era, presumably prior to the invention of pottery .

At about 7 thousand BC. e. from the territory of North Africa began the resettlement of nomadic prasemites . In 6 thousand BC. e. Lebanon has become the periphery of Egyptian civilization , where proto-cities existed. The first known permanent proto-urban settlement was Byblos . Traces of the first ceramics and metallurgy in Lebanon (first copper and bronze ) were also found in this city. The Phoenicians , who at that time formed a single nation with the Canaanites (inhabitants of ancient Palestine ), probably already lived on this territory.

The first mention of the name "Lebanon" (relative to the Lebanon massif) of Lebanon. Found in Mesopotamian sources III-II millennia BC. , including the Epic of Gilgamesh . At the beginning of the III millennium BC. e. new city-states appeared on the coast, inhabited by Phoenician navigators and merchants. In addition to the Bible, the most important of them were Tire (or Sur), Sidon (or Sayda ) and Berith (or Beirut ). Around 2150 BC The migration of Lebanese Amorites began . In antiquity, the later Greek name Phenicia began to be used for the coast of Lebanon.

At the beginning of the III millennium BC. e. new city-states appeared on the coast, inhabited by Phoenician navigators and merchants. In addition to the Bible, the most important of them were Tire (or Sur), Sidon (or Sayda ) and Berith (or Beirut ). Around 2150 BC The migration of Lebanese Amorites began .

Phenicia was subordinated to Egypt both under the rule of the Hyksos and under the independent pharaohs of the New Kingdom , which was reinforced by the military campaigns of Thutmose III . In the XIV centuries. BC e. Lebanese territory became the scene of clashes between the Hittites and Egyptians (the latter retained their power).

However, as a result of the invasion of the peoples of the sea, the territory of Lebanon was isolated from Egypt and the city-state of Tire was elevated, which turned into a thalassocracy. The Phoenicians - the ancient inhabitants of Lebanon - invented the Phoenician letter , which the ancient Greeks borrowed from them. Phoenician sailors traveled throughout the Mediterranean Sea, establishing colonies in modern Tunisia (particularly Carthage ), Algeria and Morocco , in southern Spain , in the west of Sicily , in Sardinia and Malta. Phoenician cities and colonies played a large role in the economic life of the Mediterranean , they controlled the important trade routes between Europe and the East. The most famous Phoenician king was Hiram I the Great ( X century BC ) - a friend of King Solomon .

In the VIII century BC. e. Lebanon became part of Assyria . The Phoenician cities were more likely to pay tribute to the mainland states, provided that they would not interfere with their trade than wage long wars of independence. In 539 BC e. (under Cyrus II ) the territory of Lebanon became part of the Achaemenid Empire , then, after the siege of Tire , it entered the empire of Alexander the Great , whose possessions were inherited by the Seleucids . In 84 - 71 BC. e. Lebanon became part of Great Armenia Tigran II the Great . In 64 BC. e. Thanks to the conquests of Pompey the Great , Lebanon became part of the Roman Empire as part of the Roman province of Syria .

The originality of modern Lebanon is due to a number of factors. On the one hand, the Arabic language, which penetrated Lebanese soil along with the army of Caliph Omar in the 7th century and replaced the Semitic dialects that used to be here, on the other hand, the Christian religion, which penetrated here even in apostolic times and, thanks to the wooded mountain landscape, could be preserved even in the limits of Muslim states ( Arab Caliphate , State of Tulunids , Fatimids ). Isolated from the Ecumenical Church, Lebanese Arab-speaking Christians turned into Maronites , named after St. Maron .

The crusades were supported by local Christians, who in 1182 entered into a union with the Roman Catholic Church , and the territories of Lebanon were divided between the county of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem of the Crusaders.

In 1261, the Crusaders were expelled by the Egyptian Mamelukes of Beibars I , who were supported by the local South Lebanese Ismaili Druze , who appeared in the time of the Fatimids . During Egyptian rule, Muslim rulers relied on the Druze ( clan of Ma'an ).

In 1517, the Turks replaced the Egyptians, who continued to support the Druze. In the 17th century, the Shehab clan became the regional Lebanese elite. In the XVIII century, Beirut turned into a large trading center for trade with European countries. For work among local Christians, missionaries began to arrive in large numbers, especially the Franciscans and Jesuits . Contacts between missionaries and local authorities strengthened the Christian community.

In 1832, Lebanon was occupied by the forces of the rebel Ibrahim Pasha , who decided to rely on the Maronite communities. When Egypt was returned to the Turkish Sultan by Egypt in 1840, the Christians of Lebanon retained some privileges, which caused an aggravation of relations with the Druze. Ethnic confessional clashes erupted in October 1841 ^[3] . The influence of the European colonial countries, which saw in the Maronites the fifth column of their influence, affected. To separate the two warring communities, the Turkish administration introduced separate management in 1845 . However, this did not save Lebanon from the bloody massacre that the Druze carried out in the spring and summer of 1860 . Killed approx. 6 thousand Christians ^[4] . The Turks supported fellow believers, which caused the French intervention of 1860 , which led in 1861 to the separation of Lebanon from Syria into a separate sanjak , led by a Christian governor. European educational institutions appeared in Lebanon ( Syrian Protestant College , 1866; Catholic University of St. Joseph, 1875), which trained personnel for the Lebanese elite.

In the fall of 1918, the Battle of Armageddon took place in Palestine, during which the Anglo-Arab troops of Allenby were able to occupy Beirut ( October 8 ). The collapse of the Ottoman Empire began , and in the northern Arab lands the pan-Arabist movement of Faisal , initiated by the British secret services, began with the goal of building Great Syria on the model of the Damascus caliphate of the Middle Ages. On March 8, 1920, the Syrian National Congress in Damascus , led by al-Hashim Atass, adopted a resolution known as the Faisal Clemenceau Agreement. Congress proclaimed the independence of Syria within its natural borders (including Lebanon ) and proclaimed Faisal king of the Arabs. In Beirut, the Christian press expressed hostility towards the decisions of the Faisal government. Lebanese patriots benefited from the crisis by convening the Council of Christian Leaders in Baabda on March 22, 1920 , which proclaimed the independence of Lebanon.

The French authorities expressed dissatisfaction with Faisal's ambitions and launched the victorious French-Syrian war of 1920 . French General Henri Gouraud established control over Lebanon and Syria. As a result of the Treaty of Sevres in August 1920, the territory of Lebanon within Syria was assigned to France. From the French mandate territory of Syria, a coastal territory with a center in Beirut was allocated and named Great Lebanon . One of the reasons for the emergence of a new territory was the protection of the Arab Christian population .

On May 23, 1926, the Lebanese Republic was created on the site of Great Lebanon, the device of which replicated France. In 1926, the Orthodox President Charles Debbas took over as president of the Lebanese Republic, but since 1934, only the Maronites were elected presidents of Lebanon. After 1937, only Sunni Muslims were appointed prime ministers.

In November 1936, the French government of the Popular Front signed an agreement providing for the expiration of the French mandate in Lebanon in 1939. However, after the government of E. Daladier came to power in France in April 1938, the ratification of this treaty was disrupted.

In 1939, after the outbreak of World War II , a state of emergency was declared in Lebanon, the constitution was abolished, the parliament was dissolved, and the activities of the communist party were banned.

In September 1940, after the surrender of France , Vichy government representative Admiral F. Darlan granted Germany the right to use Lebanese territory for economic and military interests. Since May 1941, operations were launched from military bases in Lebanon against British troops stationed in Iraq. In response, the United Kingdom announced a blockade of Lebanon, which exacerbated the economic crisis in the country, began to subject Lebanese territory to daily shelling and air raids.

Military units of "Free France" and British troops entered Lebanon on June 8, 1941 . The French commander-in-chief, General J. Qatrou, announced the abolition of the French mandate, and then confirmed the declaration of Lebanon’s independence and restoration of the 1926 constitution, but with restrictions imposed by “wartime requirements”. This contributed to a significant revival of the party and political life of Lebanon. In the elections held in 1943, the victory was won by the block of B. al-Khoury , who represented mainly Christians and advocated the immediate declaration of independence and the elimination of the French presence. In September 1943, al-Khoury was elected president. On November 8, 1943, the Lebanese parliament excluded from the constitution articles restricting sovereignty in favor of France. In response, the French authorities arrested al-Khoury and Prime Minister R. al-Solkh , dissolved the parliament and announced the termination of the constitution, but under the influence of mass protests of the population were forced to restore the legitimate government of Lebanon on November 22, 1943. This day has become a national holiday in Lebanon - Independence Day .

In the fall of 1943, President B. Al-Khoury and Prime Minister S. Al-Solh concluded an agreement on the principles of Lebanese government, known as the “ National Pact ”, according to which seats in parliament were distributed between Christians and Muslims in a ratio of 6 to 5, so that the total number of deputy seats was a multiple of eleven.

In February 1945, Lebanon declared war on Germany and Japan. In March 1945, Lebanon participated in the creation of the League of Arab States , in the same year became a member of the UN .

In December 1945, France and Great Britain entered into an agreement under which their troops introduced into Lebanon in 1941 were to remain on its territory for an indefinite period. In response to this, a mass movement unfolded in Lebanon for the complete withdrawal of foreign troops from its territory. The Lebanese government refused to negotiate with France and appealed to the UN Security Council , where it was supported by the USSR , Poland and Egypt . Great Britain and France were forced to begin the evacuation of troops from Lebanon, and in 1946 the last British and French soldiers left Lebanon.

The emergence of an independent Jewish state in the south in 1948 and the ensuing Arab-Israeli war destabilized the fragile ethno-confessional world in Lebanon, as an influx of Arab-Muslim populations ( Palestinians ) began in the south.

During the Suez crisis, Lebanese- Egypt relations intensified. This was due to the fact that pro-Western president Camille Shamun ( maronite by religion) did not break off diplomatic relations with the Western powers that attacked Egypt, and thus angered Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser . Tensions between the two countries increased when Lebanon began to draw closer to the participants in the Baghdad Pact . Nasser believed that the pro-Western Baghdad Pact poses a threat to Arab nationalism.

The political structure of Lebanon, according to which the president should be a Maronite Christian, and the prime minister a Muslim , and the diametrically opposite foreign policy orientation of these figures led to an increase in not only political, but also religious tension. In 1957, the Muslim opposition formed the National Front, demanding a policy of "positive neutrality" and friendship with Arab countries.

In 1958, President Shamun attempted to amend the constitution in order to remain in power for a new term. In response, a Muslim uprising broke out in May, led by former prime ministers Rashid Karam and Abdallah Yafi and parliamentary speaker Hamad . It quickly grew into a civil war, and after some time the rebels took possession of a quarter of the country's territory . The July 14th revolution in Iraq , which overthrew the country's pro-Western government, along with internal instability, forced President Shamun to turn to the United States for military help that day. American troops were able to quickly take control of the situation and in October 1958 they were withdrawn from Lebanon.

Lebanon did not participate in the Arab-Israeli Six Day War of 1967 and the Doomsday War of 1973. However, after 1967, Palestinian partisans repeatedly attacked Israel from refugee camps in Lebanon. Israeli forces retaliated, and the Lebanese government attempted to limit Palestinian military attacks from its territory. Tensions increased after the events of Black September 1970 , when the Palestinian resistance forces in Jordan were defeated by the efforts of the regular army, after which the Palestinian militants moved to Lebanon.

In 1973 , armed clashes broke out between Lebanese government forces and Palestinian troops. Lebanese Muslims and leftist parties (National Patriotic Forces) supported the Palestinians. The Palestinian problem split the country, and a civil war of 1975-1990 broke out in Lebanon between right-wing Christian forces and left-wing organizations of the Muslim community, which was complicated by Syrian intervention and Israeli interventions ( 1982 Invasion ). The war led to the emergence of a radical Shiite group of Hezbollah , created with the support of the state of Iran , and also to the pro-Israeli Army of southern Lebanon .

The civil war weakened Lebanon, which, however, under the leadership of Prime Minister Hariri, has relatively stabilized. At the same time, however, Lebanon's foreign debt rose to $ 20 billion, and the personal condition of the prime minister also increased sharply, which allowed him to be suspected of corruption. Rafik Hariri concentrated in his hands the real power in the country, making the post of president nominal. Under him, Lebanon began to lean more and more toward Saudi Arabia to the detriment of relations with Syria. To return Lebanon to its sphere of influence, Syria in the 1998 presidential election supported the candidacy of Emil Lahoud, who, having won the election, immediately replaced the head of government, accusing him of an unsuccessful economic policy - in particular, a sharp increase in foreign debt. Однако уже в 2000 году возглавляемый аль-Харири политический блок выиграл парламентские выборы и президент Лахуд вынужден был утвердить его на посту главы правительства.

2000-е: антисирийская кампания

После арабо-израильской войны 1948 года Ливан попал в зону влияния Сирии , которая в Холодной войне занимала сторону СССР. С концом Холодной войны, распадом СССР и угасанием арабо-израильского конфликта (создание Палестинской автономии и вывод израильских войск из южного Ливана) в стране усилились антисирийские настроения. 3 сентября 2004 года Ливанский парламент принял поправку к конституции, продлившую срок полномочий президента Ливана Эмиля Лахуда до 2007 года ^[5] . Правительственный кризис был вызван усилившимся давлением на Ливан и Сирию со стороны США и Франции. По их инициативе Совбез ООН принял 19 октября заявление, которое призывает Сирию вывести свои войска из Ливана, а Ливан — разоружить отряды « Хезболла », контролирующие юг страны. 20 октября 2004 премьер-министр Ливана Рафик Харири , самый богатый человек Ливана, ушёл в отставку вместе со всем кабинетом.

Президент Э. Лахуд поручил формирование нового правительства просирийскому политику Омару Караме . 14 февраля 2005 года Рафик Харири был убит, в стране начались волнения. 28 февраля 2005 под, угрозой вотума недоверия и на фоне продолжающихся манифестаций протеста правительство Омара Караме ушло в отставку. Семь недель страна фактически жила без правительства (в то время как президент Эмиль Лахуд пытался сохранить пост премьер-министра за Караме), и лишь 18 апреля премьер-министром был утверждён телевизионный магнат Наджиб Микати , известный тесными связями с сирийцами и даже считающийся другом сирийского президента Башара Асада . Новый кабинет министров состоит всего из 14 человек. Микати распределил ключевые посты между представителями как просирийского, так и антисирийского лагерей. Просирийски настроенные Махмуд Хаммуд и Джавад Халифа сохранили за собой посты главы МИДа и министра здравоохранения, соответственно. Вице-премьером и министром обороны стал зять президента Э. Лахуда Эльяс Мурр. Пост главы МВД возглавил генерал Хасан Сабаа, который ранее работал в службе общей безопасности страны, но никогда не входил в просирийские правительства. Министром юстиции стал пользующийся доверием семьи убитого экс-премьера Рафика Харири судья Халед Каббани.

Ливанская оппозиция при поддержке Франции и США всё же добилась вывода из страны сирийских войск и разведслужб. 25 апреля 2005 из Ливана ушёл последний сирийский солдат. В Ливане демонтированы объекты сирийских ПВО и ликвидированы артиллерийские позиции.

Командование ливанской армии приступило к изъятию лицензий на хранение оружия, выданных ранее сирийскими военными властями и министерством обороны Ливана. Инициатором этой кампании выступил командующий армией генерал Мишель Сулейман. Кампания направлена в первую очередь против группировки «Хезболла».

26 мая 200? в Бейруте начала работу международная комиссия по расследованию убийства Рафика Харири. Её возглавляет старший государственный обвинитель генпрокуратуры Берлина Детлев Мехлис. Ему помогают криминалисты из 30 стран. Россия в работе комиссии не принимает участия. Штаб комиссии находится в отеле «Мовенпик», в западной части Бейрута.

Израильско-ливанский конфликт 2006

2010-е

• Ливан // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
• Статья "Ливан" из энциклопедии "Всемирная история"
• Кедровая Швейцария Ближнего Востока — Lenta.ru