Militaristic tendencies in Japanese politics of the first half of the 20th century appeared already in 1910 , when Japan annexed Korea [1] . The chauvinistic ideology of Japanese militarism took shape between 1920 (the beginning of the global crisis and the economic recession that provoked the growth of totalitarianism) and 1927 [1] .
On December 25, 1926, the Japanese imperial throne was inherited by the 25-year-old Showa (Hirohito) . The first twenty years of his reign (1926-1945) were marked by the growing military power of the country. Since 1932, when the next prime minister was killed, Inukai Tsuyoshi , the Japanese military, who had veto power during the formation of the cabinet , almost completely controlled the entire political life of Japan, which led to the outbreak of the Sino-Chinese war (1937-1945) , and then and the entry of Japan into World War II .
The foreign policy of Japan in this period is characterized as a para-fascist [2] or militaristic [3] [4] .
The main foreign policy goal of Japan was to expand the zone of influence in East Asia . In the conditions of the civil war in China , the active Soviet penetration of Xinjiang, Mongolia and Northern Manchuria, the Soviet-Chinese conflict and the Anglo-American rivalry, Japan relied on a military-political solution to the Far Eastern problems. The use of inter-imperialist contradictions in the region, anti-Bolshevik and anti-colonial propaganda, the acquisition of allies in Europe ( Nazi Germany and fascist Italy ) allowed Japan to pursue an expansionist course and at the same time maintain acceptable relations with other participants in the struggle for influence in the region [5] .
Using the disunity of the USSR and the West and the rivalry between the great powers in the Far East, Japan began a violent revision of the Versailles-Washington system of international relations . Facing the choice of the direction of further expansion, Japan, however, decided not to bring the matter to war with the USSR and to pursue a cautious policy in China, trying to expand its zone of influence by peaceful means and create in Manchuria a military-economic base for the future [5] .
In the summer of 1937 , considering the fact that Britain and France were busy with Spanish events , cooperation with Germany and Italy and without fear of US intervention, Japan decided to move to active operations on the continent. On July 7, 1937, Japan began the war in China. Since the great powers tried to avoid spoiling relations with Japan, which absorbed a significant part of their exports, the conference of the countries of the “ Nine Powers Treaty ”, held in November 1937, due to the general reluctance to intervene in the Japanese-Chinese conflict ended in failure, denoting the collapse of the Washington system [5] .
On November 3, 1938, Japan announced plans to create a " Great East Asia ."
The origin and development of Japanese militarism
Economic situation
Japan quite successfully used the First World War of 1914-1918. for its economic development, increasing by 25% its national wealth. The weakening of the competition of the great powers in the Far East allowed the Japanese industry to develop at the expense of exports, but the restoration of the pre-war situation led to a decline due to the narrowness of the domestic market. In 1920–1923, the Japanese economy experienced a crisis complicated by an earthquake in the Tokyo area [5] .
Washington Conference (1921–1922)
In November 1921, an international conference was convened in Washington to consider questions about the post-war balance of forces in the Pacific Basin and the limitation of naval armaments. During the conference, a new balance of forces was established in the Far East, based on the partnership of the great powers based on consensus on naval problems, mutual guarantees of regional interests and general principles of policy in China. Japan was forced to abandon the alliance with Britain and limit its claims in China and Russia, but received guarantees of naval security and, thus, proved to be the main guarantor of the Washington system of international relations [5] . One of the agreements signed at the conference was the “Treaty of Nine Powers” (USA, Britain, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and China), which proclaimed the principle of respect for China’s sovereignty, territorial and administrative inviolability. He obliged all participants to adhere to the principles of " open doors " and "equal opportunities" in trade and industrial development throughout China.
1927-1928
On December 25, 1926, the Japanese imperial throne was inherited by the 25-year-old Showa (Hirohito) . The first part of his rule (1926-1945) was marked by growing militarism. Already in 1900, the imperial army and navy of Japan had the right of veto when forming the cabinet of ministers . Since 1932, when the next Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated, the military gained almost complete control over the entire political life of Japan, which led to the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) , and then to the entry of Japan into World War II .
In 1927, in Japan, weakened by the financial crisis , there was a change of government. On April 20, General Tanaka Giichi became prime minister , replacing Wakatsuki Reijiro . The new prime minister was later attributed to the authorship of the so-called Tanaka Memorandum , according to which, in order to achieve world domination, Japan had to conquer Manchuria and Mongolia, and subsequently all of China [6] . It was alleged that Tanaka submitted his memorandum to the emperor in 1927 and received his approval. This document figured later among the evidence presented at the Tokyo International Military Tribunal over the Japanese war criminals (1946-1948) [7] .
Tanaka immediately embarked on an aggressive foreign policy. During 1927-1928, he sent troops to China three times, torn by civil war. Already on May 27, 1927, Japanese troops for the first time went to Shandong to cover the Japanese protege in Beijing , the leader of the Manchurian Fengtian clique, Zhang Zolin, from the National Revolutionary Army (commander - in - chief of Chang Chiang Kai-shek ). The Japanese leadership was faced with the question of defining a foreign policy line in the current situation, and during the Eastern Conferences of June-August 1927 it was decided to intensify expansion in China. In early September 1927, Japanese troops were withdrawn from Shandong, and Chiang Kai-shek visited Japan, trying to reconcile relations in the beginning of the civil war in southern China. The visit ended without any special results, and the Nanking government began to focus on the United States , which used this opportunity to strengthen its position in China [5] .
After concluding agreements between the Nanking government and the United States in March-April 1928, the NRA began a campaign against Beijing. Japan once again used troops in Shandong, but was unable to keep Zhang Zolin from withdrawing his troops from Beijing and retreating to Shenyang . Zhang Jolin himself, who was under suspicion of intending to negotiate with Chiang Kai-shek and the Americans, was killed as a result of sabotage during his return to Mukden ( Huangutun incident ) [5] . In his death blamed the Japanese intelligence.
As a result of the ensuing political crisis, having lost support and criticized from both the parliament and the emperor Hirohito himself , Tanaka and his cabinet resigned. Osati Hamaguchi became the new prime minister.
The open intervention of Japan led to the growth of the anti-Japanese movement in China. On June 5, 1928, the NRA occupied Beijing, on July 25, the government of Chiang Kai-shek was recognized by the United States, and on December 20 by Great Britain. After the death of Zhang Zholin, his son Zhang Xuelyan inherited command of his troops and authority over Manchuria. On December 29, 1928, Zhang Xuelyang recognized the power of the Kuomintang over Manchuria . Under these conditions, Japan, fearing deterioration of relations with the United States and Britain, in May 1929 withdrew its troops from Shandong and, on June 3, 1929, together with Germany and Italy recognized the new government in China [5] .
Early 1930s
By the early 1930s, the Japanese ruling circles represented three main political forces: parliamentary parties (which expressed the interests of the largest Japanese concerns), the state bureaucracy, and the military. The military reform of 1922 led to a massive influx into the officer corps of immigrants from the poorer strata of the city and village - the so-called "young officers" who were extremely susceptible to the ultra-right ideology. In the early 1930s, this led to a split within the military itself. Generals Sadao Araki and Dzindzaburo Mazaki together with several officers created the grouping "Kodokh" ("Group of the imperial way"), the ideology of which was close to the concept of "national socialism". Radicals from the Kodokh group intended to come to power through a military coup, suspending the constitution and establishing a dictatorship. In contrast to them generals Kadzusige Ugaki , Tetsudzan Nagata , Hajime Sugiyaku , Kuniaki Koiso , Yoshijirō Umezu and Hideki Tojo organized grouping "Toseyha" ( "Monitoring Group"), the purpose of which was the gradual establishment of control over the existing state institutions, while maintaining strict loyalty to the state.
Japan’s ratification of the London Maritime Treaty on October 1, 1930 provoked the ire of the Japanese right-wing radicals. On the morning of November 14, Prime Minister Osati Hamaguchi was seriously wounded by a pistol shot on the platform of Tokyo Station. This attempt has whipped up chauvinistic moods throughout the country.
In September 1931, the Kwantung Army invaded Manchuria . Zhang Xuelyan, who did not receive help from Nanking, in an effort to save troops, withdrew them without engaging in serious battles with the Japanese [5] .
On September 21, 1931, at the meeting of the League of Nations, China officially put on the agenda the issue of the aggressive actions of Japan. In response to the appeal of the League, the Japanese government stated that Japan had no territorial claims in Manchuria and would withdraw its troops as soon as possible after restoring order and cleansing Manchuria from communist elements. However, the Kwantung Army continued the fighting, while receiving support from both a significant part of the Japanese public and leading political parties.
The success of the army operation in Manchuria prompted the Japanese fleet, which was politically rivaling the army, to take active steps. On January 23, 1932, the Japanese fleet attempted to seize Shanghai , but the fierce resistance of the Chinese troops and the diplomatic intervention of the Western powers did not allow it to do so. On March 3, 1932, the Japanese command in Shanghai published a statement on the cessation of hostilities and withdrew troops from Shanghai [5] .
In the meantime, in Manchuria, the question of the status of the occupied regions arose. The option of creating a puppet state there was chosen. On March 1, 1932, the formation of Manchukuu was proclaimed.
On February 23, 1933, the Kwantung Army invaded the Chinese province of Jehe , seizing it and part of Inner Mongolia , and then annexed this territory to Manchukuo .
On February 24, 1933, a session of the League of Nations issued a resolution on the Sino-Chinese conflict, in which, while recognizing the “special rights and interests” of Japan in this region of China, the seizure of Manchuria was declared a violation of the “Nine Powers Treaty” by Japan. In response, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations, which received the approval of Japanese public opinion, prepared by the media for the implementation of an "independent policy". Leaving the League of Nations , Japanese Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka said goodbye from its rostrum [8] :
In a few years we will be understood by the world, as Jesus of Nazareth was understood by them ... Japan’s mission is to lead the world spiritually and intellectually ... Japan will become the cradle of the new messiah.
The failure of the intervention in Shanghai and the conflict with the League of Nations led to the activation of the ultra-right in Japan. The murders of political figures began, and on May 15, 1932, an attempt was made of a coup , during which Prime Minister of Japan Inukai Tsuyoshi was mortally wounded. During the trial, a torrent of terrorists in Tokyo went on a stream of petitions expressing sympathy for the defendants as "true patriots and loyal subjects of the emperor." Lawyers for the prisoners provided the court with 111 thousand letters asking for clemency.
Mid 1930s
In 1934, when forming a new cabinet, the army and navy demanded that the decisions of the Washington Conference be annulled and that the navy be equal to the United States. At the preparatory conference on the reduction of naval armaments in October 1934 in London, the Japanese delegation put forward a proposal on the equality of the Japanese fleet with the fleets of the United States and Great Britain. Moreover, she proposed to all participating countries of the meeting to annul the Washington agreement. Having met the refusal, Japan declared on December 29, 1934, a unilateral withdrawal from the Washington Agreement. However, Japan took part in the conference on the limitation of naval armaments in London in December 1935, but after the Japanese proposal on equality of fleets was rejected there, the Japanese delegation left the conference.
In the summer of 1935, a conflict occurred in the northern part of the province of Chakhar between Chinese and Japanese forces. As a result of the signed agreement, China had to demilitarize another part of its territory, in which Japan organized its sub-control administration. At about the same time, Japan forced China to sign an agreement concerning the eastern part of Hebei Province, on whose territory an autonomous government was also formed.
In early 1936, regular parliamentary elections were held in Japan. Just six days after the election, Japan was shocked by a bloody coup : insurgents killed a number of senior government officials, seized the central districts of Tokyo, including the prime minister’s residence and the parliament building. Emperor Hirohito called upon the fleet and the imperial guard to suppress the putschists. After the suppression of the coup, nineteen of its instigators were hanged. The defeat of the putsch actually put an end to the right-wing fascist-type movement in Japan, but the ruling circles took many of the ideas of the putschists and subsequently implemented them.
After the suppression of the coup, the government resigned. The new government was formed by former Foreign Minister Koki Hirota . Only four ministerial portfolios were provided to political parties, the other ten were distributed according to the wishes of the military. The program of the new cabinet, The Basic Principles of National Policy, included a broad program of armaments, strengthening the “national defense” in Manchuria, and carrying out fundamental transformations within the country in the fields of politics, economics and administration. Speaking to parliamentarians, the Minister of War, General Hisaiti Terauti, outlined his plans for creating a “total state” as prerequisites for “total mobilization of the Japanese people” (this meant the complete exclusion of political parties and parliament from state decision-making) [9] .
Plans to create a "total state" were accompanied by clarification of the guidelines of Japanese foreign policy. The changing situation in Europe stimulated the rapprochement of Germany, Italy and Japan. The entry of the USSR into the League of Nations and Moscow’s support of the Mongolian People’s Republic demanded that Japan search for anti-Soviet allies in Europe, therefore, Tokyo was favorably received by the German soundings that began in May 1935. In the fall of 1935 and the spring of 1936, new clashes took place on the Mongolian-Manchurian border, forcing the USSR to openly declare its alliance with the MPR. This, in turn, accelerated the conclusion by Germany and Japan of the Anti-Comintern Pact on November 25, 1936, which was reinforced by a new clash on the Manchurian-Soviet border at Lake Khanka on November 26-27, 1936 [5] .
Despite the existence of peace agreements with China, Japan continued fighting in China, only led them by proxy. In 1936, in particular, it supported separatists from Inner Mongolia, who declared the creation of their own state of Mengjiang .
The occupation of Manchuria and the creation on its territory of the puppet state of Manchuku strengthened Japan’s strategic positions on the Asian mainland. The truce in Tangu, concluded in May 1933, along with the agreements of the summer of 1935, allowed the Japanese army to control the situation in the northern provinces of China. This area, which the Japanese called "the independent state of Eastern Hebei ", was a transit point for the importation of Japanese goods into China, bypassing Chinese customs. The Japanese military, however, was not satisfied with the situation from the point of view of their strategic tasks. According to General Tojo Hideki, while the Chief of Staff of the Kwantung Army, “if we consider the current situation in China in terms of preparing for war with the Soviet Union, the most expedient policy is to strike first of all the attack on the Nanjing government, which would eliminate the threat to our rear " [9] .
Considering the employment of England and France by the Spanish events , cooperation with Germany and Italy and not fearing the intervention of the United States, Japan decided to move to active operations on the continent [5] . On July 7, 1937, Japan launched a full-scale war against China. In Japanese historiography, this war is traditionally called the “Chinese incident”, which reflects the initial idea of the Japanese generals about the alleged nature of military operations in China. The Japanese militarists were preparing for a “big war” with the Soviet Union, while China was not considered a serious opponent, and therefore the “real” war with China was not taken into account in military plans. The actions against him were considered as an auxiliary operation. Suddenly, the stubborn resistance of the Kuomintang government forced the Japanese command to strengthen the military grouping and expand military operations. The constant expectation that the war in China was about to end in victory gradually exhausted the Japanese economy. When it became clear that the “Chinese incident” in the north and the “Shanghai incident” in the south turned into one big protracted war, it was already too late [9] .
Sino-Japanese War
With the declaration of war in Japan was mobilized. The parliament, which met in September 1937 for an emergency meeting, was forced to adjust the budget: even the initial, non-military budget was provided with incomes by only one-third (the rest was supposed to be covered by state loans), taking into account the additional expenses, only emergency measures could provide coverage . In this regard, the Japanese economy began to move to a war footing. Laws were passed on the control of military economy, of commercial shipping, of the production and distribution of artificial fertilizers, etc., but the most important place was occupied by the law on the control of military finances, which eliminated the free movement of capital [9] .
Japan’s new aggression has led to unfavorable changes for it in China’s domestic and foreign policy. As early as August 1937, the Kuomintang government agreed to the proposal of the Chinese Communists to create a united national front against the Japanese aggressors, and on August 21 a non-aggression agreement was signed between the USSR and the Republic of China.
In the meantime, hostilities in China were becoming increasingly widespread. Having occupied Beijing, the Japanese troops launched a powerful offensive in three directions: along the Beijing-Tianjin railway to Shandong , southward towards Hankou , and also in the north-west direction to Suiyuan .
By August 1937, hostilities were moved to the Shanghai area. Almost 3 months of fierce fighting took the Japanese army of about 100 thousand people to occupy this city. Continuing its advance up the Yangtze Valley, on December 13, Japanese troops captured Nanjing . During the massacre that followed , hundreds of thousands of civilians were killed in a matter of days.
In the occupied territories, the Japanese created puppet governments: the Big Road Government in Shanghai, the Provisional Government of the Republic of China in Beijing, the Reformed Government of the Republic of China in Nanjing.
By the end of September 1937, the Japanese army, numbering 350,000 men, was fighting in China. The Chinese government asked for help from the League of Nations, which referred its request to a special conference of the powers that signed the Washington Treaty of 1922. The conference, which opened on November 3, 1937, was also attended by all states interested in the situation in the Far East, including the USSR. Japan refused to participate in the conference under the pretext that it acts in China in the order of "self-defense" and therefore does not violate the " Treaty of Nine Powers ". The conference ended only with a statement of the fact of Japan’s violation of the “Nine Power Treaty”. The resolution expressed the wish that Japan reconsider its position with respect to China and find a way to peacefully resolve the conflict [9] .
In December 1937, the Japanese government appealed to the German ambassador to China for mediation in negotiations with the Kuomintang. On December 3, the response of Chiang Kai-shek was given to the Japanese side, which stated that the Chinese government agreed to the negotiations. On December 27, the ultimatum demands were transferred to the Chinese government:
- China’s rejection of pro-communist and anti-Japanese policies and cooperation with Japan and Manchuku in the fight against communism;
- the creation of demilitarized zones on the orders of Japan under the control of special administrative bodies;
- the establishment of close economic cooperation between Japan, Manchukuo and China; payment of contributions [9] .
Although there was no unity in the Kuomintang government about the Japanese conditions, as a result of heated discussions, it was decided not to accept Japanese conditions, after which, on January 16, 1938, Prime Minister Konoe announced in a special declaration that he would cease all relations with the Kuomintang government [9] .
In January-April 1938, the conquest of Shandong was completed as a result of the renewed Japanese offensive in the north, but in March-April, during the battle of Tayerzhuane, the 60,000-strong Japanese group was surrounded and lost 20 thousand people killed during the breakthrough from the ring .
In May - June, Japanese troops, continuing the offensive, captured Xuzhou and Kaifeng . In these battles, the Japanese used chemical and bacteriological weapons.
In June-July, the Chinese stopped the Japanese ’s strategic offensive on Hankow through Zhengzhou , destroying dams that prevented the Yellow River from spreading and flooded the area. At the same time many Japanese soldiers died, a large number of tanks, trucks and guns were under water or bogged down in the mud.
In the fall of 1938, the Japanese stepped up fighting in central and southern China. After fierce fighting , which lasted three months, the Chinese side was forced to leave Wuhan and transfer the capital to Chongqing . In October, the Japanese landed in Guangzhou . As a result, in the fall, most of the industrialized regions of China came under the control of Japan and the last railway line, which connected the Kuomintang government with Hong Kong , was cut, through which the Chinese troops were mainly supplied. However, despite private successes, Japan could not achieve the main strategic goal - the destruction of the Chinese army.
On November 3, the Fumimaro Konoe government published an official statement, signed by the emperor, that at this stage Japan’s task is to establish a “ new order in East Asia ”. This meant an attempt to establish Japanese economic and political hegemony in all of China and to demand recognition of this position by other powers. By proclaiming a “new order”, Japan opposed itself to all other countries that had interests in China [9] . A cabinet meeting in the presence of the emperor on November 30 outlined a plan for the implementation of the “new order in East Asia”, which included, in particular, the conditions for settling relations with “new China”. These "conditions", published on December 22, 1938, included:
- recognition of Manchukuu;
- China’s accession to the Anti-Comintern Pact; the transformation of Inner Mongolia into a “special anti-Comintern district”;
- Japan’s preemptive rights and special privileges in the development of the natural resources of China and Inner Mongolia [9] .
Difficulties in the economy and disappointing results of hostilities in China led to Konoe resigning on January 3, 1939 . He was replaced by Kiichiro Hiranuma , a more brutal and determined man.
Because of the difficulties that have arisen, Japan decided to abandon active operations on the continent and move on to the strategy of wearing down the enemy. In February 1939, the Japanese landed troops on Hainan Island , which was of strategic importance, since it controlled communications between two British bases - Hong Kong and Singapore. At the end of March, the Spratly Islands , which lie between the Indochinese Peninsula and the English part of Borneo and the Philippines, were occupied. In March, the battle unfolded for the city of Nanchang , which passed from hand to hand until the end of August.
In the meantime, a border conflict arose on the border between Manchuku and Mongolia. As a result of the fighting at Khalkhin Gol, the Japanese were defeated, which led to a reassessment by the Japanese side of the Soviet military capabilities.
In the midst of the conflict, on August 24, 1939, in Japan, they learned that Germany had concluded a non-aggression pact with the USSR . The announcement of this was such an unpleasant surprise for Japan that Prime Minister Hiranuma resigned on August 28, taking responsibility for the fact that Germany, which was considered an ally in Japan, entered into an agreement with a "likely opponent" - the USSR.
The new prime minister, retired General Nobuyuki Abe , said that the main task of his government would be to resolve the Chinese conflict. At the same time, it was emphasized that the new government will pursue a policy of non-interference in European affairs (at that time the Second World War began in Europe). Having concluded an agreement with the Soviet Union on the cessation of hostilities on the border with Mongolia, the Abe government turned to the United States with a proposal to "restore friendly relations." In response, US Ambassador Grew conveyed to the Japanese government a message from President Roosevelt, in which Washington demanded an apology from Japan, as well as compensation for the damage caused by numerous encroachments on American rights in China. In addition, the US government demanded guarantees that international treaties and the principle of "open doors and equal opportunities" would be respected in China. Failure to comply with American conditions, as stated by Grew, would entail economic sanctions against Japan by the United States [9] .
Meanwhile, in China, the situation for the Japanese troops was not very successful. Although the Japanese managed to land landing operations on the coast, but in the depths of the country, Chinese troops were able to stop the Japanese attack on Changsha and were able to once again take Nanchang.
By this time, in the “Chinese incident”, Japan had already lost about 1 million killed and wounded. The country began to experience difficulties with food supply. Despite the rationing of basic foodstuffs, there was an interruption in the supply of rice to industrial areas, which caused social discontent.
On January 14, 1940, Abe Nobuyuki announced his resignation. He was replaced by Admiral Yonai Mitsumasa.
Characteristic of the political regime prevailing in pre-war Japan
There are different opinions among scholars of historians about how to characterize the political regime of Japan in the 1920s-1940s:
- Fascism
- Parafashism
- Chauvinism
- Militarism .
Currently, most scientists adhere to the latest version [10] [11] , denying the presence of fascism in Japan in those years.
Those who consider the regime in Japan of those years to be fascist, refer primarily to the fact that there were fascist organizations in Japan. And after February 26, 1936, when these organizations were defeated, in Japan, according to them, the so-called "fascism from above" was formed. This view is still popular among Japanese researchers.
Their opponents give the following arguments:
- The political regime in Japan did not have the most important features of fascism, which characterized the political regimes of Nazi Germany, fascist Italy, and, to some extent, Spain and Romania . According to most researchers, to characterize the political regime as a fascist, you must have a single ruling party and a dictator - the party leader. In Germany, for example, with the coming to power of the Nazi Party , such a dictatorship of the ruling party with its leader-dictator was formed.
- In Japan, fascism existed exclusively in the form of the fascist movement, which was defeated in February 1936 (by direct order of the emperor), and its leaders were executed. After these events, there is no reason to talk about fascism in Japan. Dictatorship in Japan was not and could not be, since the pursuit of dictatorship would certainly come into conflict with the paternalistic character of Japanese society, closing in on the “god-like” (and therefore charismatic already in fact of its existence) emperor [12] . Even the fact that in 1942 in Japan, parliamentary elections were held, testifies in favor of the absence of dictatorship. And in the absence of dictatorship and dictator there is no reason to talk about the characteristic of the political regime in Japan as fascism.
At the same time, Japan’s aggressiveness towards neighboring countries and its commitment to militaristic ideology should be emphasized [10] [11] [13] .
At the same time, Japan sought precisely for the superiority of forces over other nations (which is typical of chauvinism) [14] .
Shortly before the outbreak of World War II, the former Japanese ambassador to Italy, Toshio Shiratori , proudly wrote:
Waves of liberalism and democracy, which not long ago flooded our country, now retreated. The recently accepted theory of public administration, which considered parliament as the true center of power, is now completely rejected, and our country is rapidly moving towards totalitarianism, as the basic principle of Japanese national life of the last thirty centuries.
- Toshio Shiratori. June 1939
Japanese militarism during World War II
In 1940, Konoe returned to power. A new economic system was created, under which the economy passed under the control of the government [15]
In the same 1940, Japan signed an agreement with Germany and Italy , in the pact these three countries provided for the separation of the occupied territory. Germany and Italy were given to Europe and Africa , and Japan to Asia . At that time, the United States and Great Britain did not intervene in the affairs of these three countries and hoped for a German attack on the USSR, provided that their countries would bypass the war.
On April 13, 1941, Japan and the Soviet Union signed a neutrality pact. However, the intentions of the parties were different. The USSR hoped thereby to protect the east of the country from the Japanese threat. Japan was planning to unexpectedly attack the Soviet Union and capture the entire Far East . [sixteen]
So militaristic Japan led a slow and cunning military party. The attack of December 7, 1941 on Pearl Harbor (Hawaiian operation) should be considered the largest Japanese operation. [17] [18] [19]
Religion and Militarism
Shinto was an important part of the ideology of militarism . Raised on religion, the empire supported totalitarianism and nationalism , because following Shintoism, the emperor is a descendant of the goddess Amateras , which means disobedience to him is punished by the gods. Therefore, the people obeyed the coming of totalitarianism. [eight]
The military generals understood this and used it, trying to bolster national ideas with religion. Prince Kotohito , Heisuke Yanagawa , Kuniaki Koiso, and Kiichiro Hiranuma were considered particularly noteworthy of Shinto help and its connection with popular politics.
The advance of totalitarianism took place independently of the will of the emperor. His agreement was desirable, but not considered necessary. [eight]
In order to strengthen the power and propaganda of militarism in 1941, the Japanese military government ordered the “ Association of assistance to the throne ” to issue brochures praising the totalitarian power of Japan. One of the most famous brochures was called The Basic Principles of the Imperial Way. It was based on the canonized ideology of militarism and was often used by teachers in schools as an instruction to a growing generation. [eight]
After the war, in 1946 , under the pressure of the American occupation authorities, Emperor Hirohito issued a rescript “ Ninghen-Senghen (Declaration of Human Nature) ”, perceived by many as the emperor’s abdication of his “divinity”.
Fascist organizations
Throne assistance association
A vivid example of Japanese totalitarianism is the bureaucratic "Association for Assisting the Throne" ( Taisei Yukusankai , Jap. 大 政 翼 賛 会 ), which existed in 1940-1945. The organization was led by successive prime ministers . The association dominated other mass organizations (for example, the Youth Party of Great Japan ). [20] In each prefecture [21] there was a department of the association, whose administrative apparatus changed every year.
On June 13, 1945 , before the capitulation, the Japanese government dissolved the association in order to create the impression that the liberalization of the regime was taking place in the country.
Tosei-ha
Active fascization of the country was engaged in the grouping “Tosey Ha” (“Control Faction”), headed by Hideki Tojo . There were generals and army officers who advocated the establishment of fascism in Japan and an aggressive attitude towards other countries. [20] [22] Among the main members of the army grouping were not only Hideki Tojo, but also people like Kadzushige Ugaki , Hajime Sugiyama , Kuniaki Koiso , Yoshidiro Umezzu and Tetsudzan Nagata . Competed with the group "Kodo-ha."
Tossey ha tried to present more politically conservative (moderate) elements within the army, as opposed to radical and ultranationalist Kodo ha. In 1940, the group achieved this without changing power and working "conservatively." Fascism became a national idea, without losing the share of monarchism .
Kodo-ha
The faction of the imperial way ( jap. 皇 道 派 Ko: do: ha ) is a faction consisting of the officers of the Japanese army . The goal of the organization was to establish a military government and promote totalitarian , militaristic and expansionist ideals. The faction was never recognized as a political party and had prestige only within the army. [1] [20] It competed with Tossey Ha.
Kodo-ha envisioned a return to idealized pre-industrialized, Westernized Japan, in which the state was to be cleansed of corrupt bureaucrats, adventurous political figures and greedy capitalists.
The founders of the faction were Sadao Araki and Jinzaburo Masaki . [23]
As a result of the strengthening and elevation of the Tosei-ha group, the faction of the imperial path in 1940 fell into decay.
War crimes of militaristic Japan
During the war, the Imperial army of Japan committed brutal war crimes in the occupied territories. The crimes were genocidal , as they were aimed at the destruction of "non-Japanese".
Japanese war crimes in Nanjing
In December 1937, during the second Sino-Chinese War , soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army brutally murdered many civilians in Nanjing , the capital of the Republic of China . It is estimated that about 300,000 civilians died and about 20,000 more women (aged 7–60 years) were raped.
This is how events in Nanking were described in the verdict of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East [9] :
By the time the Japanese army entered the city on the morning of December 13, 1937, all resistance had ceased. Japanese soldiers roamed the city, committed various kinds of atrocities ... Many soldiers were drunk, they walked through the streets, indiscriminately killing Chinese: men, women and children, until squares, streets and alleys were littered with corpses. Even teenage girls and old women were raped. Many women were raped and killed, and their bodies were disfigured. After the robbery of shops and warehouses, the Japanese soldiers often set fire to them. The street of Paypin Road, the main shopping district, as well as other neighborhoods of the commercial part of the city were destroyed by fire
.
The Europeans who remained in Nanking organized a committee headed by a German entrepreneur, Jon Rabe . This committee organized the Nanking Security Zone.
Until now, some Japanese politicians have denied the massacre in Nanjing, claiming that all the materials on this subject are falsified [24] . However, today there are no sufficient grounds to assert that the figure of 300,000 people is reliable. There were a lot of victims. But no one counted them then. Therefore, the figure of 300 thousand is very approximate. Some Japanese historians believe that this figure was first brought by the Americans in order to somehow level their own responsibility for the victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (see the relevant articles).
Manila Destruction
In February 1945, by order of Tokyo , the retreating troops of the Japanese army resorted to the destruction of the city of Manila . The educational infrastructure, communications centers, administrative buildings, temples and residential buildings were destroyed.
Destruction also occurred in Manila County. Actively cleaned the villages and nearby monasteries.
By some measures, the number of civilians killed during the incident in Manila is more than 100,000.
Bataan Death March
The march of death on the Bataan Peninsula ( Tagalsk. Martsa ng Kamatayan sa Bataan , Jap. Bat バ タ ー ン 死 の 行進 : Nixo Co: Syn ), with a length of 97 km, occurred in 1942 in the Philippines after the end of the battle for Bataan and was later evaluated as war crime of the Japanese.
There are no accurate estimates of the victims. The minimum score is 5 thousand. Dead from injuries, diseases, hunger and dehydration of Americans and Filipinos. Maximum - 54 thousand people.
Operation "Su Qing"
Operation Su Qing ( Kit. Ит 大 屠殺 ) was a punitive operation of the Japanese army against the Chinese population of Singapore.
February 15, 1942 Japan officially approved the occupation of Singapore . The occupation authorities decided to completely liquidate the Chinese community. Mainly Chinese participants of the Malay Peninsula and Singapore were destroyed, but civilians were also sent for execution. The operation for cleansing was called "Su Qing" (with the Chinese. - "liquidation"). All Chinese men between the ages of eighteen and fifty years who lived in Singapore passed through the filtration points. Particularly dangerous, according to the Japanese, individuals were shot outside the city.
Soon the operation spread to the entire Malay Peninsula. Due to the large population, the army did not conduct interrogations, but immediately destroyed the indigenous population. In March 1942, the operation ended, as the majority of military forces were deployed on other fronts. The death toll is unknown. According to different opinions, the numbers range from 50 to 100 thousand dead.
Comfort Stations
The “Station of Consolation” (In some sources, the “Station of Comfort”) are brothels that worked from 1932 to 1945 in the territories of Japan occupied by East and Southeast Asia. The institutions served the soldiers and officers of the Japanese army.
The stations were set up to reduce the rape of local women by Japanese soldiers. Such behavior could spread venereal diseases among the soldiers and provoke the local population to revolt. At first, the girls were hired in Japan voluntarily, but soon the demand for the station increased, and Filipino, Indonesian and Korean girls forced into brothels began to be used.
The total number of stations in the entire occupied territory is 400. From various sources, from 50 to 300 thousand women passed through them. In some places the number of clients for one girl reached up to 60 soldiers.
Many female prisoners committed suicide. Despite the obviousness of the crime, the modern Japanese authorities partially deny the fact of genocide and war crime. [25]
“Detachment 731”
“Detachment 731” ( Jap. 731 nasanъiti butai ) ; whale. trad. 七 三 一 部隊 , manage . 七 三 一 部队 , pinyin : qīsānyāo bùduì , pall. : cisanyo bui ) - a detachment of the Japanese armed forces specializing in biological weapons research. Became known for his experiences with living people. Conducted a variety of experiments: verification of biological weapons; testing of vaccines for typhus , cholera , anthrax and dysentery ; study of sexually transmitted diseases (women and their fruits); as well as research on the effects of frostbite, poisonous gas, dehydration, etc. on humans. Detachment 731 is known to have engaged in the vivisection of people. [26]
Also, the soldiers of the detachment were engaged in the disposal of the experimental remains - the bodies were burned in special crematoriums .
In fact, “Detachment 731” was an analogue of the German “Ahnenerbe” , with the only difference being that the detachment was narrowly aimed at studying in the field of medicine.
Educated and puppet states
During World War II, the Japanese military government often created puppet states in the occupied territories, providing a springboard for further interventions.
The great East Asian realm of mutual prosperity
The Great East Asian Sphere of Mutual Prosperity (“Old Letter” (Kyujitai): 大 東亞 共榮 圈, “New Letter” (Sinzitai): 大 東 亜 共 栄 圏 Give Something: a Kyo: Aiken) - a project created and promoted by the government and an organization and an organization and an organization and an organization). forces of the Japanese Empire during the reign of Emperor Hirohito . The project was based on the desire to create a "bloc of Asian nations, headed by Japan and free from the Western powers." According to official propaganda, the goal of Japan was “co-flourishing” and peace in East Asia, in freedom from Western colonialism. The scope, besides Japan, also included the following countries.
Manchukuo
Manchou-go ( State of Manchuria , the Chinese. 大 帝國 «-“ Damanzhou-digo ”(Great Manchurian Empire)) is a state formed in the occupied territory of Manchuria . Existed from March 1, 1932 to August 19, 1945 . The soldiers of this empire actively participated in the fighting on the Khalkin-Gol river. [27] The capital is Xinjing .
The empire was completely subordinate to the Japanese government and followed a militaristic ideology. But due to the fact that the empire was politically opposed to the anti-Hitler coalition , not all countries recognized Manchuku as a full-fledged country. In the list of countries that recognized Manzhou, the majority are Axis countries .
During the Soviet-Japanese war, the USSR destroyed Manchukuo, the territory in 1949 became part of the PRC .
Mengjiang
The Republic of Mengjiang [28] ( Kit. 蒙疆 ) was established in the occupied territory of Inner Mongolia , in 1936, during the war with China . The capital is Zhangjiakou .
The Mengjiang National Army (NAM), consisting mainly of natives of Inner Mongolia, supported the Japanese army in areas of northern China and fought with the army of the Mongolian People's Republic .
In 1945, as a result of the Soviet-Japanese war, the republic was liquidated. [27]
Eastern Ji Anti-Communist Government
The anti-communist government of East Ji ( whale. 冀東 防 共 自治 政府 ) was formed in November 1935 in the territory of the eastern part of Hebei Province, which the Chinese troops had to leave in accordance with the agreement of the He-Umezzu . The capital is Tongzhou . February 1, 1938 was absorbed by the Provisional Government of the Republic of China .
Hebei-Chakhar Political Council
As a result of the He-Umezu Agreement, China lost the eastern part of Hebei Province in 1935, and as a result of the Qin-Doihara Agreement , Chakhar Province. In 1936, Chinese General Song Zheyuan formed the remaining parts of the Hebei and Chahar provinces of the Hebei-Chahar Political Council ( Chinese 冀察 政务 委员会 ). Although the Japanese considered this the first step towards the separation of China from the five northern provinces, in fact, this council became a way of keeping them under Chinese rule with the formal demilitarization of these territories. The council was officially dissolved on August 20, 1937.
Provisional Government of the Republic of China
The Provisional Government of the Chinese Republic ( Kit. 中華民國 臨時 政府 ) was formed on December 14, 1937 in the territory of northern China occupied by the Japanese. The capital is Beijing . March 30, 1940 was absorbed by the Central Government of the Republic of China .
The "Big Way" Shanghai City Government
The government of the “Big Way” ( Chinese. 上海市 大道 政府 ) was formed in November 1937 in Shanghai- occupied Japan. After the expansion of the territories controlled by Japan in May 1938, it was absorbed by the Reformed Government of the Republic of China .
Reformed Government of the Republic of China
The reformed government of the Chinese Republic ( China. 中華民國 維新 ( ) was proclaimed by the Japanese in the territory they occupied in Central and Southern China on March 28, 1938. The capital is Nanjing . March 30, 1940 was absorbed by the Central Government of the Republic of China .
Central government of the Republic of China
The central government of the Chinese Republic ( Kit. 中華民國 ) was formed on March 30, 1940. To underscore its national character, the Japanese disbanded all former puppet governments created in the occupied territories. The capital is Nanjing . It ceased to exist on August 10, 1945.
State of Burma
The state of Burma is a state formed in the territory of Burma occupied by the Japanese empire. Existed from August 1, 1943 to March 27, 1945 . [27]
The main targets of the Japanese attack on Burma are to invade valuable raw materials. The attack succeeded and occupied Burma became the puppet state of Japan. But in 1945 the BNA (the national army of Burma) organized a revolution . Without the support of the army, the Burmese government fell.
Azad Hind
Free India (Azad Hind) is the pro-Japanese “government of India in exile” established in Singapore in 1943 . [27] Created by Indian nationalists, for the liberation of India from British rule. The ruler is Subhas Chandra Bos .
Azad Hind issued his money and postage stamps, had his own code. Free India controlled the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , as well as part of the future states of Manipur and Nagaland .
It collapsed in 1945, after the death of Bos in a plane crash.
Vietnamese Empire
The creation of the Vietnamese empire ( Vietnamese Đế quốc Việt Nam ) was proclaimed on March 11, 1945, when Japan announced that it was returning power over Vietnam Bao Dai . Already in August, the empire fell as a result of the August Revolution .
The end of totalitarianism
After the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , as well as the declaration of war on Japan on August 9, 1945 by the Soviet Union , on August 14, 1945, the Japanese government announced its intention to accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration . [nineteen]
On September 2, 1945, Japan signed an act of unconditional surrender . [29] Together with surrender, the totalitarian system was dismantled in the country. From the very beginning of the occupation, unofficial trials of war criminals began . The first official trial took place in Tokyo, from May 3, 1946 to November 12, 1948 at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. The process went down in history under the name "Tokyo" .
Consequences of war and totalitarian rule
- The economy was completely destroyed. [thirty]
- Inflation started. [31]
- The politician had to start from scratch. [11] [32]
But besides that, all the big cities were ravaged by the Allied forces. Industry, transport and information networks were badly damaged. The army destroyed and eliminated. Until 1948, there were trials of military and political criminals. Over 500 military officers committed suicide immediately after the surrender of Japan, but hundreds of others went to the Military Tribunal , and by his decision many were executed. Emperor Hirohito was not declared a war criminal and officially continued to rule, despite the fact that the occupation deprived him of many powers.
The occupation authorities carried out reforms in the economic, political, social and cultural fields in order to eliminate all elements of the former totalitarian system and prevent a second armed conflict. As a result of the reforms, the former absolute monarchy was transformed into a constitutional one . The militarized elite was eliminated to completely eliminate the traces of militarism in Japan’s policy. [2]
The occupation lasted 7 years: from 1945 to 1952. In 1952, a peace treaty came into force, and the occupation was lifted.
See also
- Japan surrender act
- Assistance Association to the Throne
- National Socialism
- National Socialist Propaganda
- Detachment 731
- Japanese nationalism
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 3 Sims, Richard (2001). Japanese political history since the Meiji Restoration of 1868–2000. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-23915-7 ., P. 193
- 2 1 2 Makarov A. A. Political power in Japan. M., 1988
- ↑ Aliyev R. Sh. Japanese foreign policy in 70 - early. 80 M., 1986
- ↑ O. Tanin, E. Yogan “Militarism and Fascism in Japan”.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Meltyukhov M. I. Stalin's missed chance. The Soviet Union and the struggle for Europe: 1939-1941. - M .: Veche, 2000. Chapter "On the way to war"
- ↑ See the text of the memorandum
- ↑ Memorandum Tanaka. // Japan from A to Z. Encyclopedia. EdwART. 2009
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Vadim Eliseeff, Daniel Eliseeff. "Japanese civilization"; Arthaud, 1974. ISBN 978-5-9713-7611-8
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Zhukov A.Ye. History of Japan. Volume 2, Section 4 (inaccessible link)
- ↑ 1 2 Hajiyeva E. A. “The Land of the Rising Sun. History and culture of Japan "
- ↑ 1 2 3 Yu. L. Govorov. "History of Asia and Africa in recent times."
- ↑ [See: I. Mazurov. Japanese fascism. M., 1996]
- ↑ : Supporters of this theory consider the version that the emergence of militarism began with the occupation of Korea in 1910.
- ↑ Establishment of the fascist dictatorship in Japan (Inaccessible link) . The appeal date is May 30, 2010. Archived June 22, 2008.
- ↑ Mazurov I. Japanese Fascism: A Theoretical Analysis of the Political Life of Japan on the Eve of the Pacific War. - M., 1996.
- ↑ Klaving V. “Japan in War”. - M .: Publishing house "AST", 2004.
- ↑ Goldberg DI "The foreign policy of Japan in 1941-1945." M., 1962
- ↑ A. G. Mernikov, A. A. Spektor “The Second World War”; Minsk, "Harvest" 2007.
- ↑ 1 2 Hatori Takusiro. Japan in the war, 1941-1945. - SPb .: Polygon, 2003.
- ↑ 1 2 3 O. Tanin, E. Johan. “Fascist Military Movement in Japan”. M., 1933
- "The Conservative Revolution in Japan: Politics and Ideology"; Thesis.
- ↑ Heyhatiro Togo // "Tashkent" - Rifle cell / [under total. ed. A. A. Grechko ]. - Moscow : Military Publishing House of the USSR Defense Ministry , 1976. - ( Soviet Military Encyclopedia : [8 tons.]; 1976-1980, volume 8).
- ↑ Harry, Mayron (1994). "Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army." Random House; issue reprints. p. 191. ISBN 0-679-75303-6 .
- ↑ Iris Chang. The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II
- ↑ Japan rules out new apology to 'comfort women' | World news | The guardian
- ↑ "The Plague of the Devil (China, 1933-1945)" (the chapter from the book "Essays on the history of the plague" - the authors Supotnitsky M.V., Supotnitskaya N.S.)
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Zalessky KA. Who was who in the Second World War. Allies of Germany. - M .: AST , 2004. - T. 2. - 492 p. - ISBN 5-271-07619-9 .
- ↑ According to the Palladium transcription system . Writing is confirmed by authoritative sources .
- ↑ Brooks L. Behind the Scenes of Japanese Surrender. M., 1971
- ↑ Yano S. Japanese economy on the threshold of the XXI century. M., 1972
- ↑ State law of bourgeois and developing countries. - M: Jurid. Lit. 1989
- ↑ Mescheryakov A.N. A weighty sakura or Japan in the light of stagnation. - East, 1991, № 1