Syntax

The subject of study in syntax are syntactic units , that is, language constructs in which the elements of speech are combined by syntactic connections and relations ^[2] . The syntax is associated with the norms of communication, the structure of thinking and denoted by reality, which makes it the most universal part of the language structure. However, in each language there are specific rules for syntactic relations and methods for their use. In many languages, the purpose of the syntax is to create a set of rules and systems for processes occurring in a language, which study and order the ways of combining words and the structure of sentences.

The arrangement of words in sentences and phrases, for example, in Russian or English, is mainly determined by the word order. In the sentence “Children love parents” the subject is in the initial position, and the object follows the verb. Changing the word order changes the meaning of the sentence. In other languages ​​(Latin ^[3] ), grammatical forms (mainly case) define the meaning, which remains unchanged, despite the change in the structure of the sentence.

The syntax of the language, both written and oral, is associated with the process of a person’s mutual orderly arrangement of its parts that form a single whole, in accordance with the designation of the surrounding reality, therefore it is closely connected with the mentality and is part of linguistics - a complex and extensive system of disciplines as theoretical , and applied character ^[4] .

In Russian, syntax together with morphology forms the basis of grammar ^[5] . The grammatical features of sentences and their syntactic features of construction in Russian linguistics united BB Winogradov by introducing the term “ predicativeness ”, which combined the notion of a sentence as part of speech with features of grammatical and syntactic construction, adding the notion “ communicativeness ” (the sentence is constructed by an individual at a certain time, carries information , has content, addressee and grammatical form).

Predicativeness according to V. V. Vinogradov ^[6] is a minimal syntactic category determining the functional specificity of a sentence; a key feature of a sentence, relating its content to reality and thereby making it a unit of communication (utterance) ^[7] . Modern science of language is based on the concept of predicativeness, considering it a key concept in syntax ^[8] .

In mathematics, syntax is defined by a set of rules applicable to mathematical systems, such as formal languages . Simplified versions of the original mathematical model of syntax and the method of its modeling on a computer are applicable to any written language ^[9] .

The typology of languages ​​is based on establishing similarities and differences in the linguistic structure and syntax of a particular language. KV Humboldt divided languages ​​into isolating , agglutinative and inflectional , which reflected the desire to distinguish types of languages ​​based on the general principles of the structure of grammatical forms. In agglutinating languages, he singled out languages ​​with a specific syntax of sentences - incorporating , and introduced such a unit as a sentence into the notion of language ^[10] .

The sentence structure used within a particular syntax is often the basis of a typological classification of languages:

• nominative mode (most world languages);
• ergative (for example, Avar language);
• active and inactive system (many autochthonous languages ​​of North and South America);
• corporate ( Samoyed );
• neutral order (some languages ​​of West Africa);

and another system in different languages ^[11] .

Communicative syntax

The main function of the language - communication ( communication ) between people. The object of the study of communicative syntax is a process that turns words into sentences, sentences and connected text. These are such issues as actual and syntagmatic articulation of sentences, the functioning of phrases in sentences, the communicative paradigm of sentences, the typology of statements, etc.

Semantic syntax

The objects of studying semantic syntax are text and structural schemes with the help of which its connected construction takes place: phrases, simple and complex sentences, complex syntactic whole, various kinds of statements related to the situation of speech, as well as the structure of the text that goes beyond the complex syntactic whole ^{[ 12]} . The study of linguistic patterns is of great importance for linguistic stylistic and psycholinguistic analyzes of the text ^{[13] [14]} .

Static syntax

Static syntax studies structures that are not related to the context: a sentence, a phrase, and so on. Language units. This is a coherent classification of the elements of the language (spoken, written or machine) existing in the minds of native speakers, regardless of the functioning of these elements in the sentence. For example, the grammatical paradigms of declension and conjugation.

Modern linguistics and applied sciences also study actual syntax, structural-semantic, functional, cognitive and generative linguistics, as well as many other areas ^[15] .

From ancient times to the modern era, linguistics, including syntax, remains an extremely uncertain area in terms of scientific knowledge and definitions. Within the framework of the theory of knowledge and the philosophy of language, the view of syntax or sign systems changes depending on the era and the views of researchers; various schools and trends arise in semiotics, philosophy and linguistics, which focus on various aspects and problems of language systems.

All researchers agree that there is an inextricable link between language, thinking and consciousness. When it comes to questions about the nature and quality of this connection, some scientists believe that the mechanism of thinking is not associated with verbal code, since it is carried out independently of the language in a universal objective quality, which is in the sense of expression or sentence. Others believe that the mechanism of thinking is closely related to language, and without it there can be no thinking. Still others believe that thinking can be both verbal and non-verbal (sensually-shaped) ^[16] .

The structure of speech or text as a science was first considered by the ancient Greek philosophers, and the term “syntax” was introduced by them as a means of conveying the logical content of statements. The focus of the ancient Greek philosophers was the study of mental processes, so the logic, morphology and syntax became a reflection of one linguistic phenomenon.

In the XIII - XVIth century , in the Universe Phonetic and morphogeny were relative to the expression, and not the content. The synthesis looked at how to express the expressions of thought and considered the terms and their parts (clauses of the clauses) ^[17] .

This is the name of the source of the text : , K. S. Aksakova, F. I. , F. I. Buslaev ^[18] .

In the history of philosophical thought, the following language concepts are distinguished ^[19] :

• philosophy of the name (the period of antiquity, the Middle Ages) - the language was considered as the designation of objects of reality;
• philosophy of the proposal (New time) - language was considered as a designation of concepts, thoughts, feelings. During this period, philosophers come to the conclusion that a word cannot clearly express a thought; it must be framed in the form of a certain style to which the sentence or statement corresponds ;.
• philosophy of value attitudes (New and modern times) - language exists and is used by people not arbitrarily, but in accordance with their purposeful activities and practices (for example, formal languages). Most people do not seek to know the truth (as in the philosophy of the proposal), which represents the object as it is irrespective of the goals of man. For a person of the 21st century, an object has an independent value in certain conditions, most often within the framework of professional activity.

During the XIX- XX centuries there were three main directions in the study of syntax, which in many respects opposed each other:

• logical and syntactic;
• psycho-syntactic;
• formal syntactic.

The focus of these areas is the proposal. Logic-syntactic direction was developed mainly by N.I. Grech and F.I. Buslaev , formal-syntactic was the basis of the research of F.F. Fortunatov , psychological-syntactic - A.M. Peshkovsky and A.A. Shakhmatov ^20] .

Such scientists as LS Vygotsky , J. Maruzo, S.F. had a great influence on the world science of language. Bruno (France), E. Kurilovich (Poland), American scientists E. Sepir, B. Whorf, linguists of the Geneva School (S. Bally, A. Seshee, A. Frei) and many other scientists ^[21] .

The modern period in the development of Russian linguistics is characterized by the rapid development of linguistic theories in general and syntactic in particular. The modern state of syntactic teachings is characterized by the fact that there are many aspects in the interpretation of linguistic phenomena ^[22] . Some of them are related to the study of the semantics of syntactic units, others are studying the structure, others reflect the desire to uncover the structural-semantic features of languages, the fourth are related to applied sciences ^[23] . A large number of syntactic problems and the opportunity to approach them from different points of view in conjunction with an abundance of aspects of consideration led to the fact that a number of directions unseen before in science appeared in the research of syntax and syntax concepts ^[24]

Syntax as a doctrine of connected speech is closely intertwined with stylistics, since all the main functional-style and emotional-expressive properties of language units at different levels manifest themselves in the context of a certain syntactic context. The presence of communicative and logical syntax makes syntax the most universal part in the language structure.

• Parcelry
• Anaphora
• Epiphora
• Graduation
• Parallelism
• Oxymoron
• Antithesis
• Inversion
• Lexical repeat
• A rhetorical question
• Refrain
• Syntactic parallelism
• Chiasm
• Ellipsis
• Default

• Parsing
• Grammar
• Punctuation
• Spelling
• Russian language syntax
• Syntax error

• Arutyunova N. D. Syntax // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editor-in-chief V.N. Yartsev . - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1990. - 685 p. - ISBN 5-85270-031-2 .
• Testelets Ya. G. Introduction to the general syntax . - Moscow : RSUH, 2001. - 800 p. - ISBN 5-7281-0343-X . Archived December 7, 2009. Archive dated December 7th, 2009 on Wayback Machine