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Biochemistry

Biochemistry ( biological or physiological chemistry ) - the science of the chemical composition of living cells and organisms , as well as the underlying chemical processes . The term “biochemistry” has been used episodically since the mid- 19th century ; in the classical sense, it was proposed and introduced into the scientific environment in 1903 by the German chemist Karl Neuberg [1] .

Biochemistry is a relatively young science, which is at the intersection of biology and chemistry [2] .

Content

  • 1 Development History
  • 2 Related disciplines
  • 3 Sections of biochemistry
  • 4 Methods of study
  • 5 Essential chemicals
  • 6 Biomolecules
    • 6.1 Carbohydrates
    • 6.2 Lipids
    • 6.3 Proteins
    • 6.4 Nucleic acids
  • 7 See also
  • 8 Notes
  • 9 Literature
  • 10 Links

Development History

van helmont

As an independent science, biochemistry was formed about 100 years ago, but people used the biochemical processes in ancient times, not suspecting, of course, of their true nature. In the most remote times, the technology of such biochemical production-based industries as baking , cheese making , winemaking , and leather dressing was already known. The need to combat diseases made us think about the transformations of substances in the body, seek explanations for the healing properties of medicinal plants . The use of plants for food , for the manufacture of paints and fabrics also led to attempts to understand the properties of substances of plant origin. Ancient thinkers talked about what role air and food play in the life support of living things, about what causes the fermentation process [3] .

A Persian scientist and doctor of the 10th century Avicenna in his book “The Canon of Medical Science ” described in detail many medicinal substances [4] .

In the XVII century, van Helmont coined the term enzyme to refer to a chemical reagent involved in digestion [5] .

The 18th century was marked by the works of M.V. Lomonosov and A. L. Lavoisier . Based on the law of conservation of mass of substances discovered by them and experimental data accumulated by the end of the century, the essence of respiration and the exceptional role of oxygen in this process were explained [6] .

Portrait of William Prout by Henry Windham Philips

The study of the chemistry of life already in 1827 led to the division of biological molecules accepted into hitherto into proteins , fats, and carbohydrates . The author of this classification was the English chemist and physician William Praout [7] . In 1828, the German chemist F. Wöhler synthesized urea : first, from cyanic acid and ammonia (by evaporating a solution of the formed ammonium cyanate), and later that year, from carbon dioxide and ammonia . Thus, it was first proved that the chemicals of a living organism can be synthesized artificially, outside the body. Woeller ’s works dealt the first blow to the theories of representatives of the vitalist school, which suggested the presence of a certain “life force” in all organic compounds [6] . The subsequent powerful impulses in this direction of chemistry were laboratory synthesis of lipids (in 1854 - P. Berthelot , France ) and carbohydrates from formaldehyde ( 1861 - A. M. Butlerov , Russia). Butlerov also developed a theory of the structure of organic compounds [8] .

A new impetus to the development of biological chemistry was given by the work on the study of fermentation, initiated by Louis Pasteur . In 1897, Eduard Buchner proved that sugar fermentation can occur in the presence of acellular yeast extract, and this process is not so much biological as chemical [9] . At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the German biochemist E. Fischer worked. He formulated the main principles of the peptide theory of the structure of proteins , established the structure and properties of almost all of the amino acids that make up them. But only in 1926, James Sumner managed to obtain the first pure enzyme, urease , and to prove that the enzyme is a protein [10] .

Biochemistry became the first biological discipline with a developed mathematical apparatus thanks to the work of Haldane , Michaelis , Menten and other biochemists who created enzymatic kinetics , the basic law of which is the Michaelis-Menten equation [11] .

In 1928, Frederick Griffith first showed that an extract of pathogenic bacteria killed by heat can transmit a sign of pathogenicity to non-hazardous bacteria. The study of the transformation of bacteria subsequently led to the purification of a pathogenic agent, which, contrary to expectations, was not a protein, but a nucleic acid . Nucleic acid itself is not dangerous, it only carries genes that determine the pathogenicity and other properties of the microorganism . In 1953, the American biologist J. Watson and the English physicist F. Crick, drawing on the work of M. Wilkins and R. Franklin, described the structure of DNA - the key to understanding the principles of transmission of hereditary information . This discovery meant the birth of a new direction of science - molecular biology [12] .

In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatem received the Nobel Prize for their work on mushrooms, the conclusion of which was the hypothesis "one gene - one enzyme" [13] . In 1988, Colin Pitchfork became the first person convicted of murder on the basis of evidence obtained by DNA fingerprinting evidence, and the first criminal caught as a result of mass application of the fingerprint procedure [14] . Of the recent milestones in the development of biochemistry, it should be noted that Andrew Fayer and Craig Mello received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for “discovering RNA interference — the effect of damping the activity of certain genes ” [15] [16] .

Related disciplines

Having emerged as the science of the chemistry of life at the end of the 19th century [2] , which was preceded by the rapid development of organic chemistry , biochemistry differs from organic chemistry in that it studies only those substances and chemical reactions that take place in living organisms, especially in a living cell. According to this definition, biochemistry also covers many areas of cell biology and includes molecular biology [17] . After separation of the latter into a special discipline, the demarcation between biochemistry and molecular biology was mainly formed as a methodological one and on the subject of research. Molecular biologists primarily work with nucleic acids , studying their structure and functions, while biochemists focused on proteins , especially enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions. In recent years, the terms “biochemistry” and “molecular biology” are often used as synonyms [9] .

Sections of Biochemistry

  • Static biochemistry ( Bioorganic chemistry ) is the science of the chemical composition of organisms and the structures of their constituent molecules (proteins, amino acids, nucleic acids, nucleotides, carbohydrates and their derivatives, lipids, vitamins, hormones). Its main objects are biopolymers , the transformations of which make up the chemical essence of biological processes, and bioregulators that chemically regulate metabolism.
    • The biochemistry of amino acids is the science of the chemical composition of amino acids [18] .
    • Protein biochemistry is the science of the chemical composition of proteins [19] .
    • The biochemistry of enzymes is the science of the chemical composition of enzymes [20] .
    • Biochemistry of carbohydrates is the science of the chemical composition of carbohydrates [21] .
    • The biochemistry of nucleic acids is the science of the chemical composition of nucleic acids [22] [23] .
    • Nucleotide biochemistry is the science of the chemical composition of nucleotides [24] [25] .
    • Lipid biochemistry is the science of the action of lipids, their biological effects, biochemical disorders with a deficiency or excess in the body [26] .
    • Biochemistry of vitamins is the science of the action of vitamins, their biological effects, biochemical disorders with a deficiency or excess in the body [27] [28] .
    • The biochemistry of hormones is the science of the action of hormones, their biological effects, biochemical disorders with a deficiency or excess in the body [29] [30] .
  • Dynamic biochemistry - studies the chemical reactions that represent the metabolism (metabolism), namely the ways of the transformation of molecules and the mechanisms of the reactions between them [31] [32] .
    • Molecular biology is a science that aims at knowing the nature of life phenomena by studying biological objects and systems at a level approaching the molecular, and in some cases reaching this limit.
    • Bioenergy is a section of dynamic biochemistry that studies the laws of the formation, accumulation and consumption of energy in biological systems.
  • Functional biochemistry is a branch of biochemistry that studies the chemical transformations that underlie the functions of organs, tissues, and the body as a whole [33] .
    • Biochemistry of microorganisms ( Biochemistry of bacteria ) - the science of the composition and transformations of substances in microorganisms [34] .
    • Plant biochemistry is the science of molecular processes occurring in a plant organism [35] [36] .
    • Animal biochemistry is the science of molecular processes in the cells of living organisms [37] .
    • Human biochemistry is a branch of biochemistry that studies the laws of metabolism in the human body [38] .
      • Blood biochemistry is the science of the laws of metabolism in human blood [39] [40] .
      • Tissue biochemistry is the science of the laws of metabolism in human tissues [41] .
      • Organ biochemistry is the science of the laws of metabolism in human organs.
      • Medical biochemistry is a branch of biochemistry that studies the patterns of metabolism in the human body in diseases [42] .
      • Biochemistry of muscle activity is a branch of biochemistry that studies the patterns of metabolism in the human body during muscle activity [43] [44] [45] .
        • Biochemistry of sports is a science that reveals the patterns of metabolism in the human body at the maximum volume and / or intensity of muscle activity [46] [47] [48] .

Learning Methods

The basis of biochemical methodology is fractionation, analysis, study of the structure and properties of individual components of living matter. Biochemistry methods were mainly formed in the 20th century; the most common are chromatography , invented by M. S. Color in 1903 [49] , centrifugation ( T. Svedberg , 1923, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1926), and electrophoresis ( A. Tizelius , 1937, Nobel Prize in chemistry, 1948) [50] [51] .

Since the end of the 20th century. in biochemistry, molecular and cellular biology methods are increasingly being used, in particular artificial expression and knockout of genes in model cells and entire organisms (see genetic engineering , biotechnology ). Determining the structure of the entire human genomic DNA revealed approximately as many previously unknown genes and their unexplored products as were already known by the beginning of the 21st century thanks to the half-century efforts of the scientific community. It turned out that traditional chemical analysis and purification of enzymes from biomass only allow those proteins that are present in living matter in a relatively large amount. It is no accident that the bulk of enzymes were discovered by biochemists in the middle of the 20th century, and by the end of the century the belief spread that all enzymes were already open. Genomics data refuted these ideas, but the further development of biochemistry required a change in methodology. Artificial expression of previously unknown genes has provided biochemists with new research material, often inaccessible by traditional methods. As a result, a new approach to the planning of biochemical research arose, which was called reverse genetics or functional genomics [52] . In recent decades, great development has occurred in the field of computer modeling. This technique allows us to study the properties of biomolecules where it is impossible (or very difficult) to conduct a direct experiment. The technique is based on computer programs that allow you to visualize the structure of biomolecules, set their expected properties and observe the resulting interactions between molecules, such as an enzyme – substrate , enzyme – coenzyme , enzyme – inhibitor [51] .

Essential chemicals

Of the 90 chemical elements found in a natural state in nature, a little more than a quarter is needed to maintain life. Most of the rare elements are not necessary to sustain life (exceptions are selenium and iodine ). Most living organisms also do not use two common elements, aluminum and titanium . The lists of elements necessary for living organisms differ at the level of higher taxa. All animals need sodium , and some plants do without it. Plants need boron and silicon , but not for animals (or in ultramicroscopic quantities). Only six elements (the so-called macronutrients , or organogenic elements ) make up to 99% of the mass of the human body. These are carbon , hydrogen , nitrogen , oxygen , calcium and phosphorus . In addition to these six basic elements, a person needs small or microscopic amounts of another 19 elements: sodium , chlorine , potassium , magnesium , sulfur , iron , fluorine , zinc , silicon , copper , iodine , boron , selenium , nickel , chromium , manganese , molybdenum , cobalt [53] and, as shown in 2014, bromine [54] .

Biomolecules

The four main types of molecules that biochemistry studies are carbohydrates , lipids , proteins and nucleic acids , as well as their hybrids , proteoglycans , glycoproteins , lipoproteins , etc. Many biomolecules are polymers ( macromolecules ), the building blocks of which are simpler biomolecules. For example, polysaccharides are composed of simple sugars, proteins of amino acids . Biological polymers often make up complexes whose structure is dictated by their biological function [55] . In the hierarchy of chemical complexity of living systems, macromolecules are superior to chemical elements, functional groups, and simple biomolecules, and the next steps in this hierarchy are metabolic pathways , cells , multicellular organisms, and ecosystems [56] .

Carbohydrates

 
Sucrose molecule (glucose + fructose), an example of a disaccharide

Carbohydrates are composed of monomers called monosaccharides , such as glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), fructose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) [57] , and deoxyribose (C 5 H 10 O 4 ). During the synthesis of a disaccharide molecule, a water molecule is formed from two monosaccharide molecules. Polysaccharides are used to accumulate energy ( starch in plants, glycogen in animals) and as structure-forming molecules (for example, cellulose polysaccharide is the main component of the cell walls of plants, and chitin is a structural polysaccharide of lower plants, fungi and invertebrates (mainly corneas of arthropods - insects and crustaceans) [58] .

Lipids

 
Triglyceride structure diagram: a glycerol molecule to which three fatty acid molecules are attached

Lipids (fats) are typically composed of a glycerol molecule to which from one ( monoglycerides ) to three ( triglycerides ) fatty acids are attached via an ester bond. Fatty acids are divided into groups according to the length of the hydrocarbon chain and the degree of saturation (the presence and amount of double bonds in the chain). Lipids are the main energy-consuming molecules in animals. In addition, they have various functions associated with the transmission of cellular signals and the transfer of lipophilic molecules [59] .

Squirrels

 
Schematic structure of α-amino acids. amine group on the left and carboxyl group on the right

Proteins are usually large molecules - macrobiopolymers. Their monomers are amino acids. Most organisms synthesize proteins from 20 different types of amino acids. Amino acids differ from each other by the so-called R-group, the structure of which is of great importance in the folding of the protein into a three-dimensional structure. Amino acids form peptide bonds with each other, thus building a chain - a polypeptide. Comparison of the amino acid sequence in proteins allows biochemists to determine the degree of homology of two (or more) proteins [60] .

The functions of proteins in the cells of living organisms are more diverse than the functions of other biopolymers - polysaccharides and nucleic acids . Thus, enzyme proteins catalyze the course of biochemical reactions and play an important role in metabolism. Some proteins perform a structural or mechanical function, forming a cytoskeleton that maintains the shape of the cells. Proteins also play a key role in cell signaling systems , in the immune response and in the cell cycle . Many proteins, both enzymes and structural proteins, create complexes with non-protein biomolecules. Complexes with oligosaccharides are called (depending on the relative proportion of protein and polysaccharide in the complex) glycoproteins or proteoglycans. Complexes with lipids are called lipoproteins [61] .

Nucleic Acids

 
Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Monomer Compound

Nucleic acid is a complex of macromolecules consisting of polynucleotide chains. The main function of nucleic acids is the storage and coding of genetic information. Nucleic acid is synthesized from macroergic mononucleoside triphosphates (ATP, GTF, TTF, CTF, UTP), one of which adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is also the main energy-intensive molecule of all living organisms. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic acids can be found in all living cells from archaea to eukaryotes , as well as in viruses [62] .

The name "nucleic acids" was given to this group of biopolymers because of their main location - in the cell nucleus. Monomers of these molecules are called nucleotides . Nucleotides consist of three components: a nitrogenous base ( purine or pyrimidine ), a monosaccharide such as pentose and a phosphate group. DNA and RNA are distinguished by the type of pentose (in DNA it is 2- deoxyribose , and in RNA it is ribose ), as well as the possible composition of nitrogen bases (while adenine , guanine and cytosine are present both in DNA and in RNA, thymine is present exclusively in DNA, and uracil - exclusively in RNA) [63] .

See also

  • Quantum biochemistry
  • Journal "Biochemistry"

Notes

  1. ↑ Vasudevan, 2013 , p. 3.
  2. ↑ 1 2 Severin, 2003 , p. 6.
  3. ↑ Zubairov D.M. Milestones in the history of the first department of medical chemistry and physics in Russia (2007) Archival copy of December 23, 2014 on the Wayback Machine
  4. ↑ Avicenna “ Canon of Medicine ” [1]
  5. ↑ Harré, R. Great Scientific Experiments. - Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. - S. 33 - 35.
  6. ↑ 1 2 Birch, 1998 , p. 16.
  7. ↑ William Prout
  8. ↑ Butlerov A. About the chemical structure of substances // Scientific notes of Kazan University (Department of Phys.-Math. And Medical Sciences). Issue 1, Dep. 1. - 1862. - S. 1-11 .
  9. ↑ 1 2 Birch, 1998 , p. 17.
  10. ↑ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1946
  11. ↑ Chen, WW, Neipel, M., Sorger, PK Classic and contemporary approaches to modeling biochemical reactions (Eng.) // Genes Dev : journal. - 2010 .-- Vol. 24 , no. 17 . - P. 1861-1875 . - DOI : 10.1101 / gad . 1945410 . - PMID 20810646 .
  12. ↑ Crick FH, Barnett L., Brenner S., Watts-Tobin RJ General nature of the genetic code for proteins (Eng.) // Nature. - 1961 .-- December ( vol. 192 ). - P. 1227-1232 . - DOI : 10.1038 / 1921227a0 . - PMID 13882203 .
  13. ↑ Beadle GW, Tatum EL Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora (Eng.) // Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America : journal. - 1941 .-- November 15 ( vol. 27 , no. 11 ). - P. 499-506 . - DOI : 10.1073 / pnas . 27.11.499 . - PMID 16588492 . [2]
  14. ↑ Butler, John M. Fundamentals of Forensic DNA Typing . - Academic Press, 2009. - P. 5. - ISBN 978-0-08-096176-7 .
  15. ↑ Andrew Fire, Siqun Xu, Mary K. Montgomery, Steven A. Kostas, Samuel E. Driver und Craig C. Mello : Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans . In: Nature. Band 391, 1998, S. 806-811, PMID 9486653 PDF Archived January 12, 2006.
  16. ↑ Sen, Chandan K .; Roy, Sashwati. miRNA: Licensed to kill the messenger (neopr.) // DNA Cell Biology. - 2007. - T. 26 , No. 4 . - S. 193-194 . - DOI : 10.1089 / dna.2006.0567 . - PMID 17465885 .
  17. ↑ R. Murray et al. Human biochemistry. T. 1. - M., 1993 .-- p. 10.
  18. ↑ Meister A. Amino Acid Biochemistry: [monograph] / Ed. and foreword: A. E. Braunstein; per. from English: G. Ya. Vilenkina - M .: Inostr. lit., 1961. - 530 s.
  19. ↑ Sinyutina S. E. Biochemistry of proteins and enzymes. - Tambov: TSU named after G.R.Derzhavina, 2010.
  20. ↑ Chemistry and biochemistry of enzymes: [Sat. articles]. - K .: Science. Dumka, 1981. - 90 pp., ill .; 26 cm. - (Biochemistry of animals and humans: Rep. Inter-unit collection / Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of Biochemistry named after A.V. Palladin; Issue 5).
  21. ↑ Chemistry and Biochemistry of Carbohydrates: Textbook. allowance. - Vladivostok: Publishing House DVGAEU, 1999. - 56 p.
  22. ↑ Davidson J. Nucleic Acid Biochemistry / Per. from English Ph.D. n V.V. Borisova; Ed. and with the foreword. A.A.Baeva. - M .: Mir, 1976. - 412 p.
  23. ↑ Terentyeva N. A. Chemistry and biochemistry of nucleic acids: a training manual. - Vladivostok: Dalnauka, 2011 .-- 268 p.
  24. ↑ Stepanenko B.N. Chemistry and biochemistry of carbohydrates (polysaccharides): Textbook. manual for universities. - M .: Higher. School, 1978.- 256 s.
  25. ↑ Sobolev A.S. Radiation biochemistry of cyclic nucleotides. - M.: Energoatomizdat, 1987 .-- 100 p.
  26. ↑ Preparative biochemistry of lipids / [L. D. Bergelson, E.V. Dyatlovitskaya, Yu. G. Molotkovsky and others; Repl. ed. L. D. Bergelson, E. V. Dyatlovitskaya]. - M.: Science, 1981. - 259 p.
  27. ↑ Ivanenko E. F. Biochemistry of vitamins: [Textbook. allowance for biol. university specialties]. - K .: Vishka school, 1970 .-- 210 p.
  28. ↑ Biochemistry of vitamins [Electronic resource]: a teaching aid for students / A. I. Konoplya, N. A. Bystrova. Kursk: KSMU, 2012.
  29. ↑ Biochemistry of hormones and hormonal regulation: monograph / [S. A. Afinogenova, A. A. Bulatov, V. N. Goncharova and others; Repl. ed. Acad. N. A. Yudaev]. - M .: Nauka, 1976 .-- 379 p.
  30. ↑ Shushkevich N. I. Biochemistry of hormones: a manual on medical biochemistry. - Vladimir: Publishing House of VlSU, 2009. - 67 p.
  31. ↑ Hoffman E.G. Dynamic Biochemistry / Per. with him. Cand. honey. Sciences A.I. Archakova and Ph.D. honey. Sciences of V. M. Devichensky; Ed. and with the foreword. Dr. med. sciences prof. L.F. Panchenko. - M .: Medicine, 1971. - 311 p.
  32. ↑ Dynamic biochemistry: a training manual / [V. E. Tolpekin et al.]. - Moscow: Publishing House MAI-Print, 2011 .-- 71 p.
  33. ↑ Gomazkov O. A. Functional biochemistry of regulatory peptides: a monograph. - M .: Nauka, 1992. - 159, [1] p.
  34. ↑ Neverova O. A. Biochemistry of microorganisms: textbook: for university students / O. A. Neverova; Feder. Education Agency, Kemer. technol. Institute of food industry. - Kemerovo: KemTIPP, 2005. - 83 p.
  35. ↑ Kletovich V. L. Plant biochemistry: Textbook. 2nd ed., Revised. and add. - M.: Higher School, 1986. - 503 p.
  36. ↑ Biochemistry of plants [Electronic resource / G.-V. Heldt; per. from English - 2nd ed. (email). - M .: BINOM. Laboratory of Knowledge, 2014 .-- 471 pp., Ill. - (Best foreign textbook)
  37. ↑ Rogozhin V.V. Animal Biochemistry: Textbook. - St. Petersburg .: GIORD, 2009 .-- 552 s: ill. ISBN 978-5-98879-074-7
  38. ↑ Human Biochemistry: [Textbook]: 2 vol. / R. Murray, D. Grenner, P. Mayes, W. Rodwell; Per. from English Ph.D. n V.V. Borisova and E.V.Dainichenko Ed. D. x. n L. M. Ginodman. - M.: Mir, 2004.
  39. ↑ Natochin Yu. V. Blood biochemistry and diagnostics / Klinich. b-tsa RAMS. - SPb. : B. and., 1993 .-- 149 p.
  40. ↑ Barysheva E. S. Blood biochemistry [Electronic resource]: laboratory workshop / Barysheva E. S., Burova K. M. - Electron. text data. - Orenburg: Orenburg State University, EBS DIA, 2013. - 141 p.
  41. ↑ Языкова М. Ю. Биохимия тканей: учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по биологическим специальностям / М. Ю. Языкова. — Самара: Самарский университет, 2004. — 75 с.
  42. ↑ Солвей Дж. Г. Наглядная медицинская биохимия: [учеб. пособие] / пер. from English А. П. Вабищевич, О. Г. Терещенко; under the editorship of Е. С. Северина. - 3rd ed., Revised. and add. — М.: ГЭОТАР-Медиа, 2015. — 168 с. ISBN 978-5-9704-2037-9
  43. ↑ Калинский М. И. Биохимия мышечной деятельности. — К.: Здоровья, 1989. — 143 с.
  44. ↑ Биохимия мышечной деятельности: Учеб. для студентов вузов физ. воспитания и спорта / Н. И. Волков, Э. Н. Несен, А. А. Осипенко, С. Н. Корсун. — К.: Олимп. лит., 2000. — 502,[1] с.
  45. ↑ Мохан Р. Биохимия мышечной деятельности и физической тренировки / Рон Мохан, Майкл Глессон, Пауль Л. Гринхафф; [Пер. from English Валерий Смульский]. — К.: Олимп. лит., 2001. — 295 с.
  46. ↑ Яковлев Н. Н. Биохимия спорта. — М.: Физкультура и спорт, 1974. — 288 с.
  47. ↑ Михайлов С. С. Спортивная биохимия: учебник / С. С. Михайлов. — 6-е изд., стер. — М.: Советский спорт, 2010. — 347 с.
  48. ↑ Михайлов С. С. Биохимия двигательной деятельности: учебник / С. С. Михайлов. — М.: Спорт, 2016. — 292 с.
  49. ↑ Березов, 1998 , p. 26.
  50. ↑ Березов, 1998 , p. 30-32.
  51. ↑ 1 2 Monique Laberge. Biochemistry . — USA: Infobase Publishing, 2008. — С. 4. — 112 с. — ISBN 97807910196932.
  52. ↑ Koonin E., Galperin M. Sequence — Evolution — Function.
  53. ↑ Ultratrace minerals. Authors: Nielsen, Forrest H. USDA, ARS Source: Modern nutrition in health and disease / editors, Maurice E. Shils … et al.. Baltimore : Williams & Wilkins, c1999., p. 283-303. Issue Date: 1999 URI: [3]
  54. ↑ McCall AS, Cummings CF, Bhave G., Vanacore R., Page-McCaw A., Hudson BG Bromine Is an Essential Trace Element for Assembly of Collagen IV Scaffolds in Tissue Development and Architecture (англ.) // Cell : journal. — Cell Press , 2014. — Vol. 157 , no. 6 . — P. 1380—1392 . — DOI : 10.1016/j.cell.2014.05.009 . — PMID 24906154 .
  55. ↑ Monique Laberge. Biochemistry. — USA: Infobase Publishing, 2008. — С. 2. — 112 с. — ISBN 97807910196932.
  56. ↑ Новая медицинская энциклопедия [Электронный ресурс] Биохимия
  57. ↑ Whiting, GC Sugars // The Biochemistry of Fruits and their Products / AC Hulme. — Academic Press, 1970. — Vol. Volume 1. — P. 1–31.
  58. ↑ Н. А. Тюкавкина, Ю. И. Бауков. Биоорганическая химия. - 1st ed. — М. : Медицина, 1985. — С. 349—400. - 480 p. — (Учебная литература для студентов медицинских институтов). - 75,000 copies.
  59. ↑ Nelson DL, Cox MM Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. - 5th. — WH Freeman, 2008. — ISBN 978-0-7167-7108-1 .
  60. ↑ Общая биология. Учебник для 9 — 10 классов средней школы. Ed. Ю. И. Полянского. Ed. 17-е, перераб. — М.: Просвещение, 1987. — 288 с.
  61. ↑ А. Н. Несмеянов, Н. А. Несмеянов. Начала органической химии. Книга вторая (unspecified) 221. Дата обращения 26 декабря 2012. Архивировано 27 декабря 2012 года.
  62. ↑ Collier, 1998 , pp. 96—99.
  63. ↑ Tropp, 2012 , pp. 5–9.

Literature

  • Марри Р. и др . Биохимия человека. - M., 1993.
  • Введение в биохимическую экологию. — М.: Издательство Московского университета, 1986.
  • Fromm, Herbert J.; Hargrove, Mark. Essentials of Biochemistry. — Springer, 2012. — ISBN 978-3-642-19623-2 .
  • Hunter, Graeme K. Vital Forces: The Discovery of the Molecular Basis of Life. — Academic Press, 2000. — ISBN 978-0-12-361811-5 .
  • Tropp, Burton E. Molecular Biology. — 4th. — Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2012. — ISBN 978-1-4496-0091-4 .
  • Vasudevan, DM et al. Textbook of Biochemistry for Medical Students . — 7th. — JP Medical Publishers, 2013. — ISBN 978-9-3509-0530-2 .
  • Collier, Leslie; Balows, Albert; Sussman, Max. Topley and Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections / Mahy, Brian and Collier, Leslie. Arnold. — ninth edition. — Virology, 1998. — Т. 1. — ISBN 0-340-66316-2 .
  • Северин, Е.С. Биохимия: Учеб. для вузов / Под ред. Е.С. Северина. — ГЭОТАР Медиа, 2003. — 779 с. — ISBN 5-9231-0254-4 .
  • Березов Т. Т., Коровкин Б. Ф. Биологическая химия: Учебник. — Медицина, 1998. — 704 с. — ISBN 5-225-02709-1 .
  • Николаев А. Я. Биологическая химия. — Высшая школа , 1989. — 495 с. - 50,000 copies. — ISBN 5-06-001400-2 .

Links

  • Ян Кольман, Клаус-Генрих Рем, Юрген Вирт Наглядная биохимия
  • Berg et al. Biochemistry
  • Lodish et al. Molecular Cell Biology
  • Видеолекции по Биохимии
  • Видеоматериалы по Биохимии
  • Gerhard Michal, Dietmar Schombur. Biochemical Pathways: An Atlas of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology . - Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, 2012 .-- 401 p. - ISBN 9780470146842 .
Source - https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title= Biochemistry&oldid = 101039830


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  • Ermengildo Gutierrez
  • Aminova, Elena Anatolievna
  • Oenosandridae
  • Doidae

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Clever Geek | 2019