Since the Book of Mormon was published in 1830 , Mormon and non-Mormon archaeologists have studied its claims in the light of archaeological evidence. Latter-day Saints generally believe that the Book of Mormon describes historical events that took place in ancient America. Most historians and archaeologists do not recognize the Book of Mormon as a source on American history.
The Book of Mormon describes three American civilizations that had a large number of carriers, had written language, and were at a relatively high level of technological development [1] . The book mainly talks about the Nephites and Lamanites who supposedly lived in America from 600 BC. e. 400 n. e. She also mentions the rise and fall of the Jaredites , who, according to the Book of Mormon, arrived in America from the Old World shortly after the destruction of the Tower of Babel .
Archaeological finds are treated differently by apologists and critics of the Book of Mormon. Some Mormon researchers claim that the names of certain places, as well as the ruins of the Inca , Mayan , Olmec and other civilizations of Ancient America and the Old World, are consistent with the Book of Mormon [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] . Others disagree with this view, since the Book of Mormon mentions animals, plants, and technology that, according to archaeological evidence, were not present in America during the period described (3100 BC – 400 CE) [7] [8] [9] [10] : donkey [11] , cow [12] , horse, buffalo, domesticated sheep, pig [13] , goat [14] , elephant [15] , wheat [16] , barley [17] , silk [18] , steel [19] , sword [15] , scimitar, chariot [20] , etc. In addition, genetic studies have shown that peoples of the American race are most likely of East Asian origin [21] , what prot contradicts the claims of the Book of Mormon. Those who profess Mormonism, meanwhile, have their own point of view on this subject.
Content
State of archaeological science
The study of the history of pre-Columbian America by archaeological methods has been conducted for more than two hundred years. Yielding to the maturity of the Old World archeology, American archeology nevertheless managed to accumulate a significant amount of data that allowed us to obtain important information on the history of ancient American civilizations - including the level of technical development, social structure, etc. The events described by the Book of Mormon, relate mainly to the pre-classical era (civilizations of the Olmecs , Mayans , Zapotecs ).
A number of Mormon scholars in this regard argue that the Jaredites could be Olmecs, and the Nephites and Lamanites were part of the Mayan culture [22] .
Meanwhile, academic science has not yet interpreted a single find (wooden fortifications and settlements [23] ; the use of cement resembling plaster [24] ; roads [25] ; metal tips and tools [26] ; copper bibs [27] ; headrests [28] ; fabrics [29] ; pearls [30] ; inscriptions [31] ; remains of elephants [32] [33] and others) as evidence of the historical or divine origin of the Book of Mormon. The vast majority of historians consider the Book of Mormon to be a work of the beginning of the 19th century, which is in line with other works of the time, which tried to explain the culture of the mound builders.
Formal Statements by Scientific Organizations about the Book of Mormon
In 1996 and 1998, the Smithsonian Institution made official statements emphasizing that it considers the Book of Mormon
| religious document, not scientific guidance |
and what to him
| no archaeological evidence was found to support the evidence |
contained in this book [34] .
In the early 1980s, rumors began circulating among Latter-day Saints that the Smithsonian Institution uses the Book of Mormon as a source of information about where to conduct archaeological excavations. This prompted the institute to make an open letter in 1996, which detailed the reasons why the Book of Mormon was not considered by him to be a credible source [35] . In 1998, the institute re-issued the same letter, but this time limited itself to a statement about the anti-historicity of the Book of Mormon, without giving any arguments in order not to fuel the discussion. Latter-day Saint commentators believe that this was done in connection with the existence of a number of studies, the results of which refute the reasons stated in the first letter. Others believe that the Smithsonian was only trying to soften the tone of the letter so as not to spoil relations with the Mormons [36] .
In 1998, the National Geographic Society also issued a letter, this time to the Institute for Religious Studies. It emphasized that "archaeologists and other scholars have been studying the past of the Western hemisphere for a long time, but the public does not know a single study that would confirm the truth of the Book of Mormon" [37] .
Book of Mormon Anachronisms
The Book of Mormon contains a number of words and phrases that are considered anachronisms, for they are in conflict with archaeological finds.
The text of the Book of Mormon roughly covers the period from 2500 BC. e. up to 400 n e. Anachronisms describe artifacts, animals, plants, and technologies that, according to critics and some archaeologists, did not exist in the Americas during this period.
The following are the most well-known and problematic anachronisms of the Book of Mormon, as well as justifications for the apologists of Mormonism.
Old World Species
Horses
In the Book of Mormon, horses are mentioned eleven times in the context of the New World [38] . Meanwhile, there is no evidence that horses lived on the American continent during the period described by the Book of Mormon. It is only known about the existence of horses on the American continent in prehistoric times [39] [40] . Science widely recognized the fact that horses were exterminated in the Western Hemisphere more than 10 thousand years ago and did not appear there until the Spaniards brought them from Europe [41] . In the Caribbean, they appeared together with Columbus in 1493 [42] , and on the American continent, together with Cortes in 1519 [43] .
Mormon apologist John Sorenson argues that there is fossil evidence that some horses living in the New World could survive the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene [44] , but these data are disputed by most archaeologists [45] .
Mormon apologist Robert Bennett believes the word “horse” in the Book of Mormon does not refer to Equus caballus. In his opinion, immigrants from the New World could call this word tapir or another similar animal [46] .
Elephants
Elephants are mentioned twice in one verse of that part of the Book of Mormon that describes the most ancient times — in the Book of Ether. [47] Mastodons and mammoths really lived in the New World, but, as in the case of the prehistoric horse, archaeological finds indicate that they died out together with the main part of the other megafauna of the New World about 10 thousand years BC. e. The cause of extinction could be hunting and climate change [48] [49] . A small population of mammoths persisted on St. Paul's Island off the coast of Alaska up to 3700 BC. e. [50] but the effect of Book Ether is several thousand years later.
Objects of material culture of the Old World
Chariots and wheeled vehicles
The Book of Mormon twice mentions the use of chariots in the New World [51] .
Critics claim that there is no archaeological evidence to support the use of wheeled vehicles in Mesoamerica, especially since many parts of ancient Mesoamerica were not suitable for wheeled vehicles. Clark Wissler, curator for ethnography at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, noted:
| We see that the prevailing type of land transport in the New World was the manual transportation of goods. The wheel remained unknown in pre-Columbian times [52] . |
A comparison of the Incan civilization of South America with the Mesoamerican shows a similar lack of wheeled transport. Although the Incas had a wide network of paved roads , these roads were so rough, steep, and narrow that they apparently were not suitable for wheeled vehicles. The Inca-built bridges (some of them are still in use) are made of straw harnesses and so narrow (about a meter or less wide) that no wheeled vehicles could pass on them. Inca roads were used mainly by couriers and llama caravans.
Mormon point of view
There are a number of reasons why Mormons do not show much concern about the results of archaeological research:
- The official position of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints says: faith is not the result of intellectual reasoning, but of spiritual revelation.
- Research on the Book of Mormon has just begun, and various points of view may appear at the initial stage. For example, it is still unclear where the events described occur. They are localized in South America , Central America and North America right up to Finger Lakes in the state of New York (the culture of " mound builders ").
- Both apologists and critics will inevitably make mistakes, because:
- Most archaeological research relies on the dating of events that occurred in Mesoamerica later than the events described in the Book of Mormon. Since then, the tribes dispersed, their language, religion, culture disappeared or unrecognizably changed.
- A recent interpretation of the Book of Mormon showed that other peoples lived in America along with the tribes described.
- The Book of Mormon tells us that the Lamanites destroyed the Nephites and wiped their culture from the face of the earth.
- Archeology in North America has not reached the proper level of understanding of the artifacts that scientists find. For example, it is still unclear who built the stone and "cement" cities and pyramids in eastern North America, because, according to the prevailing science, the primordial population of these places built only tipi and wigwams , although there is mention of "buildings made of cement" in The Book of Mormon, for example, Helaman 3rd chapter.
Notes
- ↑ See for example: Jarom 1: 8 (machines), Mosiah 8: 5 and 25: 5 (literacy), Helaman 3: 8 and 3:16 (the spread of Lehi's descendants throughout America).
- ↑ Priddis, Venice (1975). The Book and the Map . Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft, Inc.
- ↑ Hills, Louis Edward (1917). Geography of Mexico and Central America from 2234 BC to 421 AD . Independence, Missouri.
- ↑ Hills, Louis Edward (1918). A Short Work on the Popol Vuh and the Traditional History of the Ancient Americans by Ixt-lil-xochitl . Independence, MO.
- ↑ Hills, Louis Edward (1924). New Light on American Archeology: God's Plan for the Americas . Independence, MO: Lambert Moon.
- ↑ Gunsolley, JF (1922). More Comment on Book of Mormon Geography . Saints Herald.
- ↑ Abanes, Richard (2003). One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church . Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1-56858-283-8 .
- ↑ Wolverton, Susan (2004). Having Visions: The Book of Mormon: Translated and Exposed in Plain English . Algora. ISBN 0-87586-310-8 .
- ↑ Persuitte, David (2000). Joseph Smith and the Origins of the Book of Mormon (2nd ed.). McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-0826-X .
- ↑ “Does Archeology Support The Book Of Mormon?” Institute for Religious Research. Retrieved February 10, 2010.
- ↑ Nephi 18:25, Ether 9:18.
- ↑ Nephi 18:25.
- ↑ Ether 9:18.
- ↑ Ether 9:18, Enos 1:21, 1 Nephi 18:25.
- ↑ 1 2 See What is Mormonism?
- ↑ Mosiah 9: 9.
- ↑ Mosiah 9: 9, Mosiah 7:22, Alma 11: 7, 15.
- ↑ 1 Nephi 14:17.
- ↑ 1 Nephi 4: 9.
- ↑ Alma 18: 9.
- ↑ Fagundes, Nelson JR; Ricardo Kanitz, Roberta Eckert, Ana CS Valls, Mauricio R. Bogo, Francisco M. Salzano, David Glenn Smith, Wilson A. Silva, Marco A. Zago, Andrea K. Ribeiro-dos-Santos, Sidney EB Santos, Maria Luiza Petzl -Erler, and Sandro L. Bonatto (2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas" (pdf). American Journal of Human Genetics 82 (3): 583-592. doi: 10.1016 / j.ajhg.2007.11.11.013. PMID 18313026 . PMC 2427228. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
- ↑ Allen, Joseph L (2003). Sacred Sites: Searching for Book of Mormon Lands . Covenant Communications.
- ↑ Alma 48: 8. See also: Squier, Ephraim George (1849). Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York .
- ↑ Helaman 3:11. See also: Stuart, George E., Who Were the “Mound Builders”? , National Geographic, Vol. 142, No. December 6, 1972, pg. 789.
- ↑ 3 Nephi 8:13. See also: Searching for the Great Hopewell Road, based on the investigations of archaeologist Dr. Bradley Lepper , Ohio Historical Society, Pangea Production Ltd, 1998.
- ↑ Jarom 1: 8. See also: Priest, Josiah, American Antiquities and Discoveries in the West , pg. 179.
- ↑ Mosiah 8:10. See also: Mound Builders & Cliff Dwellers , Lost Civilizations series, Dale M. Brown (editor), pg. 26.
- ↑ Alma 43:38. See also: Priest, Josiah, American Antiquities and Discoveries in the West , 176; Mound Builders & Cliff Dwellers , Lost Civilizations series, Dale M. Brown (editor), pg. 26.
- ↑ Mosiah 10: 5. See also: Ritchie, William A. The Archeology of New York State , pp. 259, 261.
- ↑ 4 Nephi 1:24. See also: Mound Builders & Cliff Dwellers , Lost Civilizations series, Dale M. Brown (editor), pg. 26.
- ↑ James 4: 1-2.
- ↑ Ether 9:19. See also: Peet, Stephan Dennison, The Mound Builders, Their Works and Relics , pp. 38-44.
- ↑ Silverberg, Robert (June 1969), “And the mound-builders vanished from the earth,” American Heritage Magazine. This book indicates that in pseudoscientific literature of the early 19th century, mastodons were considered contemporaries of the culture of the mound builders.
- ↑ Smithsonian Institution statement on the Book of Mormon (unavailable link from 11/05/2013 [2287 days]) .
- ↑ The Smithsonian Institution's 1996 “Statement Regarding the Book of Mormon . ”
- ↑ Givens, Terryl L (2002). By the Hand of Mormon: The American Scripture That Launched a New World Religion . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513818-X .
- ↑ http://irr.org/mit/national-geographic.html (inaccessible link from 11-05-2013 [2287 days]) .
- ↑ 1 Nephi 18:25; Enos 1:21; Alma 18; Alma 20: 6; 3 Nephi 3:22; 3 Nephi 4: 4; 3 Nephi 6: 1; Ether 9:19.
- ↑ Guthrie, R. Dale. "Rapid body size decline in Alaskan Pleistocene horses before extinction" (unavailable link from 11/05/2013 [2287 days]) . Nature. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
- ↑ Baker, Barry W .; Collins, Michael B., Bousman, C. Britt. “Late Pleistocene Horse (Equus sp.) From the Wilson-Leonard Archaeological Site, Central Texas” (PDF). Archived from the original (link unavailable) (link unavailable from 11/05/2013 [2287 days]) on February 27, 2008. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
- ↑ R. Dale Guthrie, New carbon dates link climatic change with human colonization and Pleistocene extinctions, Nature 441 (11 May 2006), 207–209.
- ↑ Kirkpatrick, Jay F .; Fazio, Patricia M. "Wild Horses as Native North American Wildlife" . Archived from the original Archived November 29, 2006. on November 29, 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
- ↑ Singer, Ben. "A brief history of the horse in America; Horse phylogeny and evolution . " Canadian Geographic Magazine . Archived from the original (unavailable link from 11/05/2013 [2287 days]) on October 29, 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
- ↑ See note in John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Company, 1996), 295, n. 63.
- ↑ Peterson Daniel C. and Roper, Matthew “ Ein Heldenleben? On Thomas Stuart Ferguson as an Elias for Cultural Mormons »FARMS Review: Volume - 16, Issue - 1
- ↑ Robert R. Bennett, Horses in the Book of Mormon Archived June 11, 2008. , FARMS Research Report.
- ↑ "And they also had horses and donkeys, and there were also elephants, kurelom and kumoma, and all of them were useful to man, but especially elephants, kureloma and kumoma." (Ether 9:19).
- ↑ Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies . New York, London: WW Norton and Company.
- ↑ Sharon Levy, Mammoth Mystery, Did Climate Changes Wipe Out North America's Giant Mammals, Or Did Our Stone Age Ancestors Hunt Them To Extinction? , Onearth, winter 2006, pp15-19
- ↑ Kristine J. Crossen, 5,700-Year-Old Mammoth Remains from the Pribilof Islands, Alaska: Last Outpost of North America Megafauna , Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Volume 37, Number 7, (Geological Society of America, 2005), 463
- ↑ Alma 18: 9-10,12, Alma 20: 6, 3 Nephi 3:22
- ↑ Wissler, Clark. The American Indian, pp. 32–39. Cit. by: Roberts, Brigham Henry (1992). Brigham D. Madsen, ed. Studies of the Book of Mormon (second ed.). Salt Lake City: Signature Books, pp. 99
Links
- http://jefflindsay.com/BMEvidences.shtml
- http://www2.ida.net/graphics/shirtail/keystone.htm (link not available)
- http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/DNA.shtml (FOR)
- http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_migrl.htm (inaccessible link) (NEUTRAL)
- http://www.ericbarger.com/mormon.dna.htm (VS)