Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul of 177 BC)

Origin

Tiberius Sempronius belonged to the plebeian family Semproniev , first mentioned in consular fasts under 304 BC. e. ^[1] Cognomen Gracchus is either of Etruscan origin or dates back to the Latin graculus ( jackdaw ) ^[2] . The first known source of this generic nickname was the consul of 238 BC. e. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus , who suppressed the rebellion of the Ligurs and conquered Sardinia . His eldest son of the same name twice became consul during the Second Punic War (in 215 and 213 BC) and died in one of the clashes with the Carthaginians . Of the younger, Publius, nothing is known; perhaps he died young ^[3] . Publius allegedly had two sons: the eldest, of the same name , served as a tribune in 189 BC. e. ^[4] , while the youngest received the name Tiberius ^{[3] [5]} . According to one version of the genealogy, Tiberius Sempronius also had a cousin who bore the same name ^{[5] [6]} .

To distinguish Tiberius from his son of the same name, a number of sources refer to him Tiberius, son of Publius ^{[7] [8] [9]} .

The Early Years and Early Careers

The birth of Tiberius Sempronius in historiography is dated 220 BC. e., based on the date of its first consulate and the requirements of the Law of Willius , adopted in 180 ^{[10] [11]} . Titus Livius mentions a "very young" Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus , who in 204 BC. e. was chosen by Augur instead of the deceased Mark Pomponius Maton ^[12] . The same Gracchus, according to the " History of Rome from the founding of the city ", died in 174 BC. e., after which his place was taken by a certain Titus Veturius Gracchus Sempronian ^[13] . But in historiography there is an assumption that confusion has occurred here. In the same 174, another Augur died - Tiberius Sempronius Long ; meanwhile, it is known that two representatives of the same kind could not be members of this priestly collegium at the same time. This led to the hypothesis that Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and the allegedly replacing Titus Veturius Gracchus Sempronian are one person. It could have been the consul of 177, still in early youth for the sake of the augurat, formally accepted as part of the patrician clan Veturiev . Anticologist E. Badian draws a parallel with Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinter , who in 57 BC. e. was formally adopted by one of the Manlis to become an Augur, but he did not change his name ^[14] .

Tiberius Sempronius is mentioned in sources in connection with the events of 190 BC. e., when the army of the brothers Scipio - African Publius and Lucius - moved east against King Antiochus III . Gracchus (according to Livius, “the hottest among the Roman youths of that time” ^[15] ) was part of this army. It was his Scipions who sent Philip V to the Macedonian king to find out if he was faithful to the alliance with Rome and whether he was ready to provide the Romans with passage through Macedonia and Thrace ^[16] . For three days Gracchus rode the distance from Amphissa to Pella and found the king at a feast. He received a warm welcome and was convinced that Philip was not up to anything against Rome and that “food for the army was carefully prepared, bridges were built on the rivers, and roads in difficult places were fortified” ^[17] . As a result, the Romans without any difficulties passed from Thessaly to the Hellespont , where they crossed to Asia Minor ^[18] .

Perhaps Tiberius Sempronius participated in another diplomatic mission in the Balkans. In 185 BC e. the Senate responded to complaints from the Thessaly communities, Perbasses and Afamans about the aggressive policies of Philip V. A commission was sent to Greece, including three nobles: Consul Quint Cecilius Metellus , Praetorium (former praetor) Mark Bebius Tamfil and Tiberius Claudius (according to Polybius ^[19] ) or Tiberius Sempronius (according to Libya ^[20] ). It is assumed that Tiberius Sempronius is Gracchus ^{[21] [22] [23]} . The ambassadors examined the case at a meeting in the Tempei Valley and decided that Philip must withdraw his troops from all the cities he had captured in recent years. This included, among other things, four cities transferred to Rome by Macedonia for their assistance in the Antioch war . Then the ambassadors went to Thessalonica to solve the problem of two Thracian cities, Enos and Maronei , also occupied by Philip. The king of Pergamum Eumenes II claimed these cities, but the Romans made an indefinite decision: Enos and Maronea had to leave Pergamum, if so decided by ten legates in 188 BC. e. If there was no such decision, then they should go to Philip by conquest. In the meantime, the matter remains unclear, the Macedonian garrisons should be withdrawn. The decisions of the ambassadors, according to Titus Livius, brutally insulted Philip and made the Third Macedonian War inevitable ^[24] . The ambassadors returned to Rome the same year ^[23] .

Scipion processes

Tiberius Sempronius played an important role in the internal political struggle in Rome in 187-184 BC. e. At this time, Mark Porcius Cato inspired a series of accusations against his enemies - the Scipio brothers. The general picture of these events, as well as the role of Gracchus in them, is not entirely clear ^[25] . Sources call Tiberius Sempronius an adversary of Scipios, who nevertheless stood up as their national tribune to defend them - the only one from the whole college ^[26] . According to Libya, who relied on Valery Antsiat ^[27] , this happened in 187 BC. e. Scipio Africanus did not appear in court, citing illness, and Gracchus not only agreed to find this explanation satisfactory, but even stated that it was unacceptable to judge Publius Cornelius ^[28] . Later, when Scipio Africanus was already dead, and Scipio Asiatic was found guilty of embezzlement of state money and taken to prison, Tiberius Sempronius, “swearing that his enmity with Scipios remains the same as it was, and he does nothing to curb himself gratitude ”, secured the release of the arrested ^[29] .

Drawing on another source ^[30] , Livy writes that at the time of the liberation of Lucius Publius was alive; at the request of other senators, Publius on the same day during a feast at the Capitol agreed to give his daughter for Gracchus ^[31] . Valery Maxim ^[32] and Aul Gellius ^[33] , who in another place of his Attic Nights , cites another version of events with reference to the lost text of Cornelius Nepot 's Examples, also write about this engagement. According to this version, Scipio Asiatic was sentenced to a fine and threatened to be sent to prison if he did not introduce guarantors; his brother appealed to the tribunes for protection, but eight of them in a special decree refused to exercise their veto . Gracchus read his decree from the board ^[34] :

Since Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiatic, being a triumphant , sent to prison [many] enemy leaders, it seems incompatible with the dignity of the state to lead the commander of the Roman people to the place where he himself placed the leaders of the enemies; so, I am defending Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiatic from co-operative violence.

- Aulus Gellius. Attic Nights, VI, 19, 7. ^[35]

This version is mentioned in one of his speeches by Mark Tullius Cicero ^{[36] [37]} . Most historians agree that the version of Valery Antsiat is the least reliable ^[30] . Moreover, the nature of the relationship between Gracchus and Scipios is the subject of scientific discussion. P. Fraccaro and J. Karkopino believe that the enmity described in the sources is an invention of the younger annalists ; R. Gere in a special work insists that enmity really took place. A. Vasiliev writes that "the truth, as always, is in the middle" ^[38] . F. Münzer writes about a political confrontation that did not involve personal hostility ^[26] . In this case, the marriage between Gracchus and Cornelia in any case was concluded about twenty years later; perhaps Cornelia had not even been born by the time of the trial ^[26] .

There is no consensus on the date of the tribune of Tiberius Sempronius: some historians write about 187 BC. e. ^[39] , others about the 184th ^{[40] [26]} . In 187, Consul Marc Fulvius Nobilior , who returned from Aetolia with victory, achieved triumph and received it thanks to the support of Gracchus ^[41] , and there are accordingly two options: Tiberius Sempronius acted in the interests of Nobilior either as a tribune or as a simple senator ^[42] .

In Spain

After the tribune, Tiberius Sempronius was one of the triumvirs involved in the removal of the colony to Saturnia in Etruria (183 BC). His colleagues were this year's consul Quintus Fabius Labeon and Praetorius Guy Afranius Stellion ^{[43] [44]} . In 182 BC e. Gracchus became a kurul edil ^[45] , and his expenses on games were so excessive that, according to Libya, “they were not only a burden on Italy and the Latin allies , but also on overseas provinces” ^[46] . The Senate had to adopt a resolution to limit henceforth the costs of such purposes ^[23] .

In 180 BC e. Gracchus became a praetor . By lot, he was given control of the province of Near Spain , where Quint Fulvius Flaccus waged a heavy war with the Celtiberians ^[47] . Tiberius Sempronius immediately faced difficulties: the legate sent by Flaccus to Rome and two military tribunes declared that the Spanish army had been fighting for too long, and therefore wanted to return to Italy with the governor, despite the fact that the enemy was still not pacified. The Senate had to compromise: Flaccus received permission to bring soldiers to Italy who came to Spain before 186 BC. e., and Gracchus had to recruit another 12 thousand people, so that the total size of the army was at least 23 thousand ^[48] .

Due to the prolonged military recruitment, Tiberius Sempronius lingered in Italy, so that Quint Fulvius had time for another invasion of the lands of the Celtiberians. Finally, in Tarracon, Gracchus assumed the authority of the governor. In the stories of sources about the activities of Tiberius Sempronius in the province (180-178 BC) there are a lot of exaggerations. Embellished information could come from the governor himself, and then recorded in the annals and in the “General History” of Polybius , whose closest friend was the cousin of his wife Gracchus ^[23] .

Tiberius Sempronius faced in Spain a very serious enemy, who could put up to 35 thousand soldiers and did not think of giving up even after failures in field battles ^[49] . Until the end of 180 BC e. the governor could only free from the siege the city of Caravis, allied to Rome, on the lands adjacent to the Iber River ^{[50] [23]} . In view of the seriousness of the situation, the Senate extended the powers of both Tiberius Sempronius and the governor of Far Spain, Lucius Postumius Albinus , and sent them 30,000th reinforcements ^[49] . With these forces, in 179, two proprethors invaded Celtiberia from two sides. Sources report the victory of Gracchus in two large battles (in one, under Alka, supposedly 9 thousand Celtiberians died, in the other, near Mount Havn, 22 thousand ^[51] ) and the capture of the cities of Mund , Alka, Ergavik ^{[52] [23 ]} . In total, Tiberius Sempronius took, according to Libya, 103 Spanish cities ^[53] , according to Flora - 150 ^[54] , according to Polybius - 300 ^[55] , according to Orosius - 350 ^[56] . However, Posidonius also laughed at these numbers, writing that “Polybius, to please Gracchus, turned the fortifications into cities, as is usually done for triumphal processions” ^[55] .

Understanding the illusory nature of his victories, Tiberius Sempronius concluded in 178 BC. e. the world with the Celtiberians under fairly mild conditions. Local tribes pledged to supply auxiliary troops to Rome, not to build new cities and pay taxes; the exact amount of the tax is unknown, but apparently it was not too large, since the Celtiberians remained faithful to this agreement for a long time and later sought to restore its conditions ^[49] . Thus, Tiberius Sempronius managed to reconcile his province. To commemorate the victory, he founded the city, called Gracchuris ^[57] .

First Consul

Gracchus returned to Italy in 178 BC. e. and celebrated a brilliant triumph (his colleague Lucius Postumius Albin also received this honor and entered Rome a day later ^[58] ). In the same year, Tiberius Sempronius won the consular election. His colleague was the patrician Guy Claudius Pulhr ^[59] .

At that time, tribes of Ileans and Balar rebelled in Sardinia. Gracchus with two legions went to this island, which 60 years earlier was first conquered for Rome by his grandfather, and fought there for two years. It is known that later the senate gave him as aide praetor Guy Ebutia . In 176 BC e. Praetor Mark Popillius Lenatus received Sardinia as a province, but refused to go there, calling the change of commander inappropriate during the war. Tiberius Sempronius pacified the Sardinians during two campaigns ^[57] . The main sources telling about this war were his letter to the Senate, which mentions Titus Livy ^[60] , and the triumphal board, which Gracchus established in 174 BC. e. in the temple of Mater Matuta . Both in the letter and in the inscription on the blackboard, he depicted the war in the most favorable light for himself: the province was completely pacified, 15 thousand enemies were killed, all previous tributaries paid in double size. Upon returning to Rome at the beginning of 175 BC. e. Gracchus celebrated his second triumph ^[61] , and there were so many turned into slaves of the islanders that the proverb “cheap as a sard” appeared ^[62] .

Censorship

In 169 BC e. Tiberius Sempronius put forward his candidacy for censorship . There were six candidates in total, including three plebeians (Gracchus, Marc Junius Brutus and Publius Mucius Stcevola ) and three patricians - Gaius Valerius Levin , Lucius Postumius Albin (Gracchus’s long-time associate in Spain) and Guy Claudius Pulhr, Gracchus’s consular colleague ^{[63 ]} . The largest number of votes received Gracchus and Pulhr ^[64] .

By that time, another war with Macedonia had been going on for two years, so the new censors had to solve the army’s problems as well. Tiberius Sempronius and Gaius Claudius forced all warriors who had previously been laid off to return from Italy to the provinces, and all citizens under 46 years of age who swore the census swore that they would appear with the new military recruitment. Then the censors compiled a list of senators, excluding seven people from it and placing Mark Emilia Lepid at the head of the list (he was awarded this honor for the third time) ^[65] .

With the riders, the censors “were very strict and severe”: they took away many state horses and removed from contracts those who had already acted as farmers in the previous five years. This provoked a conflict between the censors and the tribune Publius Rutile . The latter proposed a bill that invalidated all the agreements concluded by Gracchus and Pulchrome and announced new tenders - with the admission of all comers. When the censors protested, Rutilius accused them of violating the sacred rights of the tribune and brought to trial in the public assembly. According to Libya, the people were opposed to Pulhr and in favor of Gracchus. Therefore, in the case of Gaius Claudius, considered first, the Centuries began to vote for the conviction; but Tiberius Sempronius announced that if his colleague was convicted, he too would go into exile. This predetermined the outcome of the case: Pulkhra was acquitted, albeit by an insignificant majority, but they did not blame Gracchus ^{[66] [67]} .

At the initiative of Tiberius Sempronius, all freedmen were recorded in one tribe , selected by lot, - Esquiline ^[68] . As a result, the influence of this category of citizens on the outcome of the vote significantly decreased, so Cicero even put the assessment of this initiative of Gracchus into the mouth of Quintus Mucius Stcevola Pontific : “even though we now barely hold power in our hands, but if he weren’t, we would have long been completely lost her ” ^[69] . In addition, Tiberius Sempronius built on the site of the house of Scipio the African Basilica, which was later called Sempronieva ^[70] . When the term of office of the censors expired, they asked for another six months to complete the work, but the people's stands Gnei Tremelli imposed a ban on this in retaliation for expulsion from the Senate ^[71] .

One evidence of the general rigor of this censorship has been preserved ^[67] . According to Plutarch , Quintus Cecilius Metellus of Macedon once told Gracchus’s son, Tiberius Jr. , that when his father, "when he was a censor, returned home after dinner, the citizens put out their fires, fearing as if no one thought they devote too much time to wine and cheerful conversations ” ^[72] .

Later years

In 165 BC e. Tiberius Sempronius headed the embassy, ​​directed to the East - to Eumenes of Pergamon , Ariarat Cappadocia , Antiochus Epiphanes and to Rhodes ^[73] . The purpose of the ambassadors was to find out whether the eastern rulers are sincere friends of Rome. They brought home the most positive reviews ^[74] . Perhaps ^[75] , it was during this journey that Gracchus spoke to the Rhodians, which Cicero mentions ^[76] .

Immediately upon his return from the East, Tiberius Sempronius for the second time put forward his candidacy for consul (for 163 BC) and won. His colleague was Maniy Juventi Talna ^[77] - also a plebeian, which was rare for that era ^[78] . Presumably Gracchu fell by lot to remain in Rome, while Talna went to Corsica . Even before the end of the year, Maniy Juventius died, so it was Tiberius Sempronius who held the next election of magistrates. As a result, one of the consuls in 162 BC. e. became the brother-in-law of Gracchus Publius Cornelius Scipio Nazika Korkul . Later, these elections were declared held with inaccuracy. According to Cicero, during a vote, the collector of votes in the first Century fell dead as soon as he reported the result; the haruspeks declared "that the magistrate who conducted the comitia was illegal," but Tiberius Sempronius reacted sharply to this ^[79] :

Gracchus, flushed with anger, exclaimed: “Really? Am I illegal? Am I a consul and augur who convened comitia after auspices , or are you Etruscans , barbarians who have arrogated the right to auspices for the Roman people and their interpretation regarding comitia?

- Cicero. On the nature of the gods, II, 11 ^[80] .

Due to this “patriotic” position of the consul, the answer of the haruspeks was not taken into account, and the Senate recognized the elections as held ^[81] . Tiberius Sempronius went to Sardinia ^[77] and here already the next year, having studied the Augur books, he realized that the election procedure had indeed been organized incorrectly: after crossing the pomeria (the sacred border of Rome) during the election he did not make additional auspices. Gracchus informed the Collegium of his discovery (however, it is not known whether he acted as an augur or as a proconsul ^[81] ), and that was the Senate. As a result, Scipio Nazica and his colleague Guy Marcius Figul , who were then in their provinces, in Gaul and Corsica, respectively, had to return to Rome and resign ^{[82] [75]} .

Tiberius Sempronius also left his province in 162 BC. e., but for other reasons: he was again sent to the East with a diplomatic mission ^[83] . Seleucid Prince Tsarevich Demetrius , who had the right to the throne, fled from Roman imprisonment. Therefore, the Senate instructed Gracchus and his companions in the embassy of Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Lupu and Servius Glaucus to study the situation in Greece and Asia, find out “what came out of Demetrius’s escape, find out the mood of the other kings and settle bickering between them and the Galatians ” ^[84] . It is known that Ariarat of Cappadocia, having accepted the ambassadors, refused alliance with Demetrius, although he became king ^[85] .

In subsequent years, Tiberius Sempronius is no longer mentioned in the sources. Nevertheless, it is known that he lived for another ten years: the birth of the youngest of his sons dates back to 153 BC. e. ^[75]

Mark Tullius Cicero, listing the speakers of the Cato Censor era in the Brutus treatise, also mentions Gracchus, who, according to him, was an eloquent person ^[76] . At the same time, the hero of another treatise, “About the Orator,” Quintus Mutsi Stsevola Pontific , says that Tiberius Sempronius was “not at all eloquent” ^[69] . The text of the speech delivered by Gracchus to the Rhodians is preserved until at least 46 BC. e. ^[76]

During the time of Augustus , the text of a speech about Scipio Africanus, attributed to Tiberius Sempronius, was popular. Even then, many doubted the authenticity of this text ^[87] , which stated, in particular, that after his victory over Hannibal, Scipio was offered a lifelong consulate or dictatorship ^[88] . In historiography, there is an opinion that this is a fiction of official propaganda, designed to justify the unprecedented power of Guy Julius Caesar , and then Augustus ^[30] .

Tiberius Sempronius was married to Cornelius the Younger, daughter of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus and niece of Lucius Emilius Paul of Macedon . Cornelia the Elder was the wife of her second cousin Publius Cornelius Scipio Naziki Korcula, who thus was Gracchus the brother-in-law. Relations between the two politicians were to deteriorate in 162 BC. e., when Gracchus recognized the election of Naziki as consul "sinful." But the German researcher F. Münzer admits that some more circumstances were needed for the sons of the two Cornelius to become mortal enemies ^[75] .

The Cornelia brothers could not make a good career and died young. Therefore, during the life of Gracchus, the head of the clan was Publius Cornelius Scipio Emilian - by blood a cousin of Cornelius , and by adoption - his nephew. After death in 162 BC e. the widows of Scipio African Emilia Tertia Emilian prematurely paid Tiberius Sempronius and Nazika the second half of the dowry of their wives - twenty-five talents, although they expected to receive this amount only for three years ^[89] .

The annalists believed that Gracchus married Cornelius the Younger in the 180s BC. e., during the Scipio processes, when Scipio Africa was still alive. But already Titus Livy doubted the credibility of such dating ^[90] . Researchers, relying on the testimonies of Polybius ^[89] and Plutarch ^[91] , are sure that this marriage was concluded much later - between 165 and 162 years BC. e. ^[92] . Tiberius Sempronius was already more than 50 years old, and his wife was more than 30 years younger than him ^{[93] [94]} . Nevertheless, Cornelia gave birth to twelve children, so this family became an example of large families for Pliny the Elder ^[95] . Plutarch tells the following story about the relationship of the spouses:

One day, as they say, Tiberius found a pair of snakes in his bed, and the soothsayers, having thought about this sign, announced that they could neither kill nor release both at once: if the male was killed, Tiberius would die, if the female was Cornelia. Loving his wife and believing, in addition, that it was fairer to be the first to die the eldest (Cornelia was still young), Tiberius killed the male, and released the female into the wild. Soon after, he died.

- Plutarch. Tiberius and Guy Gracchi, 1 ^[91]

This episode is also in a number of other sources ^{[96] [97] [98]} . Valery Maxim concludes: “So I don’t know whether Cornelia should be called happy thanks to such a husband or unhappy because of the loss of such a husband” ^[96] . Researchers agree that, judging by the available data, Tiberius Sempronius loved his wife ^[99] .

Of the twelve children, only three survived to adulthood: Tiberius Sempronius , who, judging by the name , was the eldest of his sons (born in 163 or 162 BC. ^[100] ), the daughter of Sempronius , who became the wife of her cousin adoption and blood cousin Scipio Emilian, and Guy Sempronius ^[91] . The latter was nine years younger than his brother Tiberius, so his birth should be dated 154 or 153 year BC. e. ^[100] F. Münzer believes that Sempronia was born shortly after 164 BC. e. and could be the oldest of twelve children, or at least of six daughters in this family ^[101] . Tiberius Sr. died shortly after the birth of Guy ^[92] .

Cornelia survived her husband for about four decades ^[93] . Many noble Romans and foreigners asked for her hands, including the Egyptian king Ptolemy VI Philometor , but she refused everything, devoting her life to raising her sons ^[102] .

Ancient writers praised the personality of Tiberius Sempronius and its significance for the Roman Republic. This tradition originates from Cicero ^[93] , who opposed Tiberius the elder to his sons: if the former “sought to strengthen the state”, then the latter tried to destroy this state ^[103] . For Cicero, Gracchus was "a prudent and respectable man" ^[69] ; “He was not a sage, but since he strove for fame and dignity, he was very successful in virtue” ^[103] . Cicero considered Tiberius Sempronius “the owner of outstanding and remarkable valor” ^[104] , an example of the statesman, “the ruler and organizer of the public good” ^[105] . In his opinion, “Tiberius Gracchus ... will be glorified, while the memory of the acts of the Romans” ^[9] .

Guy Welley Patculus called Tiberius Sempronius “an outstanding man” ^[106] . Plutarch writes about “courage and impeccable honesty”, for which all the Romans were passionately loved Gracchus ^[107] , as well as about the “moral height”, which was “the main source of his fame and dignity” ^[91] .

German anti-critic F. Münzer called Gracchus “a typical representative of the Roman nobility of the times of its highest prosperity and greatness” ^[93] . The wife of Tiberius became one of the favorite characters in historical paintings of the XVIII-XIX centuries in the framework of the plot “Cornelia is the mother of the Gracchus”, and Tiberius Sr. in this context embodied for some artists a conservative idea opposing the revolutionary one (the latter was identified with his sons) ^[108] .

Tiberius Sempronius is one of the characters in the novel “Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchus brothers” by Elizabeth Highlanders (2010) ^[109] . From the scene of his funeral, the first episode of the historical series “ Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire ” begins.

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• Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul of 177 BC) (English) . - in Smith 's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
• Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul of 177 BC) (Russian) . - biography on the site ancientrome.ru .