Courteous literature

The codification of the term “courtesy” occurs in the second half of the 12th century (treatise by Andrey Kapellan “On Love”, c. 1186). In the 11th century, lyrical genres of courtly literature appeared in Provence , which composed troubadours . In the XII century, courtly lyrics appeared in the north of France (here the Truvers created it) and in Germany (poetry of the Minnesingers ); a courtesy of chivalrous romance arose there. Samples of courtly literature were also created in England, Italy, Denmark, and the Czech Republic. Starting from the XIII century, authors appeared from the urban estate, rethinking the courtyard tradition (sublime love began to give way to the carnal). Towards the end of the 14th century, the tradition of courteous literature was gradually dying down and in the 15th century, courteous values ​​underwent transformation or parodies (the novel by Antoine de La Salle “ Little Jean from Santre ”, 1456) ^[1] .

Knights of the XI century. Carpet from Bayeux

The worldview of courteous literature is characterized primarily by a change in individual self-awareness. The heroic epic refers to the honor of a well-known collective: only as a participant in the honor of a kind (geste-parenté) and the honor of its lord does the knight have the honor; otherwise, he becomes a faidit. And the hero of this epic (for example, Roland ) does not fight and die for his honor, but first of all - for the honor of his kind, then - for the honor of his tribe - Franks , then - for the honor of his lord, and finally, for the honor of God Christian community. On the collision of interests of different collectives - for example, on the contradiction of the honor of gender and the requirements of vassal fidelity - a conflict is built in the heroic epos: there is no personal moment ^[2] .

The situation is different in courtly literature. At the center of the courteous novel is a heroic personality - a well-mannered, wise and fair knight who performs unprecedented feats in honor of the lady of the heart in distant semi-telling countries. The power of the clan union is nullified, the hero of the courteous novel often does not know exactly the kind of tribe (raised in the family of the vassal Tristan , raised in the Partzifal forest, brought up by the maiden of Lake Lancelot ); and the lord with his court is only the starting and ending point for the hero’s adventures ^[2] .

At the center of the courteous system of values ​​was the concept of “courteous (exquisite, exalted) love” (the expression “fin 'amors” first appears in Provencal literature of the 12th century), understood as selfless service to the Dame (“Donna”, that is, “Madame”, from Lat . domina ), which requires the knight of constant moral self-improvement. Amorous relationships were often described in courtly literature in the same terms as feudal service to a vassal to a suzerain ^[1] .

Genres

The lyrical genres of courtly literature are developed in Provencal literature by troubadours or troubles:

• canzona - a poem of exquisite form;
• sirenta - reflections on moral, political topics;
• crying - a poem conveying the poet’s sadness about the death of a person;
• tenzona - dispute, dialogue;
• pastorella describes the love of a knight and a cowgirl against the backdrop of nature;
• alba (lovers parting in the morning after a secret date is celebrated)
  

and others ^{[1] [2]} .

The self-sufficient knightly feat-adventure ( l'aventure , diu âventiure ), performed without any connection with the interests of the clan and tribe, serves primarily to exalt the personal honor ( onor , êre ) of the knight and only through this - the honor of his lady and his lord. But the adventure itself is of interest to the courteous poets not so much with the external interweaving of events and actions, but with those experiences that it awakens in the hero. Conflict in courtly literature is a conflict of conflicting feelings, most often a conflict of chivalrous honor and love.

Even more clearly than in the courteous novel , the growth of individual self-consciousness in the lyrics is reflected: the anonymity of the previous era of Provence troubadour - the first bearers of a new worldview - contrast the emphasis and praise of poetic authorship: for the first time in the Middle Ages in this poetry, a person proudly claims his rights to his creative products . “Non es meravelha, s'ieu chan / mielhs de nulh autre trobador” (No wonder if I sing better than any other troubadour), Bernart de Ventadorn begins one of his songs, and Jaufre Rüdel concludes his song with a warning: “Bos es lo vers ... / É cel que de mi l'apenra / Gart se no i falha ni pessi! ”(My verse is wonderful. And whoever learns from me, let him beware of making mistakes or ruining him!).

In close connection with the general growth of self-identity of a person is the sublimation of sexual relations in Courtyard literature. The church cursed as one of the seven deadly sins - fornicatio - all kinds of extramarital affairs; the feudal system deprived a woman of inheritance rights, limited her economic and political rights. And in the heroic epos, only in the background loom pale images of the humble and passive wives and brides of warlike knights, for example, the “beautiful Alda” - the bride of Roland . True, along with this, the heroic epic (especially of the Germanic peoples) preserves powerful harsh images of warlike heroes, avengers for insulting and shed blood; but these images — the Brunghilds , the Krimgilds of the “ Nibelungs ” —been mostly generated by prefeudal relations, although they remain in later treatments of the courtyard type. Otherwise, in a brewing new economic structure, entailing the growth of cities, the development of money circulation, the firm organization of estate management, the beginnings of bureaucratically centralized statehood. The restriction in these conditions of the economic and political rights of the heirs of large feuds loses its meaning; and Provence , the birthplace of courtesy service to the lady, carries out for the first time the “emancipation” of a woman from the upper strata of the ruling class, the equation of her inheritance rights with a man: in the XII century, the administration of a number of large feuds - the counties of Carcassonne , the duchy of Aquitaine , the Viscountry of Beziers , Narbonne , Nimes - in the hands of women.

Thus, real prerequisites are created for the feudalization of relations between a noble lady - the owner of the feud - and the panegyric composing her serving knight - an obscure ministerial. But in Courtyard literature, these relations receive a kind of reinterpretation: the growth of self-identity of the person is reflected in the erotic interpretation of forms of service, in the feudalization (though strictly limited of estates) of sexual relations: the eulogy of the vassal knight of the sovereign lady turns into an insistent plea for that “sweet reward”, to- I have branded the church with the shameful word " fornication ", in the conscious glorification of adultery. And just as in the feudal worldview the service of the seigneur merges with the service of God to the Christian church community, so in courtly poetry love relationships are not only feudalized, but sublimated to a cult form. Wexler pointed out ("Das Kulturproblem des Minnesanges") that the position of the troubadour in relation to his lady to the smallest detail copies the position of the believing Catholic in relation to the Virgin Mary and the saints. Like a believer, a lover experiences in the contemplation of his lady all the stages of the mystical vision of a deity; and the theological formulas of “veneration,” “adoration,” “intercession,” and “mercy,” addressed to the saints and the Mother of God until that time, are filled with new erotic content, becoming obligatory thematic elements of courtesan lyrics. We find the same use of topics of church poetry in religious, moreover, in anti-religious meaning, among the classics of the courteous epic.

In Lancelot Chrétien de Trois, the hero prefers several golden hairs that have fallen from the crest of Queen Ginevra to the most revered relics of St. Martina and St. Jacob Compostelsky; after a love meeting, he kneels before the lady’s bed, “as before the altar”, “for he does not believe in any holy flesh” (car en nul cors saint ne croit tant).

Religious phraseology and topic are used here in a completely secular way. It is not for nothing that the clergy speak out against courtyard lyrics as against “compassion” and “linguistic fornication” and write formidable invectives against courteous novels (for example, in the 13th century, Jean Gerson , Chancellor of the University of Paris , versus Roman Rosa , Louis Vives versus Tristan and Lancelot).

Thus, the sublimation of sexual relations takes on the form of a new religion in the service of the lady. In the guise of a lady, the courteous lover worships a perfect human personality, the affirmation of earthly joy. In the church convicted amor carnalis he sees fons et origo omnium bonorum (the source and origin of all blessings); the glorification of amor-minne merges in him with the glorification of joi-freude - earthly spring joy. “Ben es mortz, que d'amor non sen / Al cor qualque doussa sabor” (Truly dead is the one who does not feel the love of sweet breath in the heart!), Bernard de Ventadorn sings, and he is echoed by the German minnesinger Reinmar Old : “Sô wol dîn freude! und wol sî dem / Der dîn ein teil gewinnen mac! ”(Good to you, joy! and good to someone who can become involved in you!)

So emphasized spiritualism of the church worldview with its sharp condemnation of transient earthly joy, Courtly literature contrasts the aesthetic justification and glorification of the flesh. And in accordance with this new, secular religion, a new ethics is emerging, based on the concept of cortezia - hövescheit (vezhestvo). Both the concept of perfect humanitas (humanity) in the ethics of the Renaissance , and the prevailing concept of perfect courtoisy here are subordinated to two main points: rationality and harmonious balance (mezura-maze). All the basic virtues that are so typical of chivalry are subordinated to the worthy representative of the courteous society to the last demand: largezza-milte - generosity, readiness for large expenses worthy of a noble knight; gen parlar - grace of circumvention; onor e proeza - honor and courage; joi e solatz - fun and skill to entertain. “Cortezia non es al mas mesura” (Priesthood is nothing more than moderation), exclaims the troubadour Folket of Marseilles . And the courteous epic will equally condemn - as opposed to the unbridled and arrogant courage of the heroes of the heroic epic - and Erek , who forgot about valor for the sake of love, and Ivein , who forgot about the deeds of love. Love is considered subordinate to the mind and harmoniously balanced in Courtoise literature: both the English - Norman Tom , and the champagne ministerial Chretien de Trois , and the Strasbourg scribe Gottfried , mastering the plot of " Tristan and Isolda ", will condemn and eliminate the concept of irresistible fateful laws, and human ones - the motif preserved in the crude retelling of the juggler Berul . Reasonableness penetrates the courtly lyrics; for the task of the troubadour is not just to pour out your feelings, but philosophically to cover the main problems of loving service to the lady, "castigar e ensenhar (to instruct and teach) - this is the reason for the flourishing in the courteous lyrics of dialogical genres, about which below.

The subject matter of Courtly literature is characterized by repulsion from both the circle of biblical and apocryphal themes of religious poetry, and from the traditions of the heroic epic . In search of material flexible enough to reveal a new worldview, courteous literature from the traditions of tribal battles and feudal feuds turns to distant antiquities for plots and motives, to equally vague Celtic legends (the debate about the Celtic element of the courteous epic is currently resolved in a positive sense) , to the East, which was rich in the European aspirations that had just opened up. Three main cycles of the plots of the courteous epic are defined in this way: a) the ancient cycle, covering the story of Alexander the Great , Aeneas , Theban and Trojan Wars , based on late Latin revisions of Greek classics unknown by the Middle Ages, b) closely adjacent to the ancient Byzantine-Eastern cycle, which include . the plots of “ Fluar and Blanchefleur ”, “L'escoufle”, “Heraclius”, “ Klizhes ” and a number of other adventurous novels; and finally c) the most characteristic of Courtoise literature, subsequently contaminated not only with both other cycles, but also with the plot of the heroic epic, the Breton cycle (matière de Bretagne), encompassing the firmly outlined plot of Tristan and the constantly expanding range of plots of King Arthur . The plot of large narrative genres of the courtyard epic and the prosaic novel growing out of the epigonal decomposition of this form closely adjoins the plot of small narrative forms - the lyric-epic “ le ”, which uses motifs of East-Byzantine and ancient origin along with Celtic legends (from the last the plot is especially popular Metamorphosis " Ovid ).

Like the plot, the imaginative system and topic of Courtyard literature reveal a clear repulsion from images, situations, and narrative formulas typical of a heroic epic . At the same time, the courteous worldview requires a certain stylization of the depicted reality for its reflection. This creates a well-known strictly limited supply of permanent images, situations, experiences, necessarily typified and idealized in the courtly epos.

Transferring the conflict to the experiences of the individual allows us to introduce descriptions of a peaceful, non-military situation into the narrative: Courteous literature widely uses descriptions of luxurious decoration, utensils and clothing, gala feasts, embassies, hunts, tournaments ; Silk and fabrics, ivory and precious stones of the mysterious East play a significant role in the development of descriptions and comparisons; the undisguised joy of rehabilitated flesh sounds in the descriptions of love meetings, so detailed in the courteous epic . On the other hand, in motivating a self-fulfilling personal feat - âventiure - the courtyard epic draws generously from the treasury of fairy-tale and pre-Christian mythology: enchanted castles and magical gardens surrounded by invisible walls, mysterious islands and floating shuttles, bridges “under water” and bridges “sharp” by themselves like the blade of a sword ”, sources whose disturbed water causes a storm, fairies , carls , giants, werewolves - falcon people and wolf people - have been fortified for more than five centuries on the pages of novels.

A trait characteristic of the religious attitude of Courtly literature: communication with this wonderful world condemned by the church does not harm the good glory of the courtly knight. In the feudal epos, Roland , fulfilling his duty to the clan, tribe, lord and church, dying, gives his glove to the archangel Gabriel ; in the courtesy of Chrétien de Troyes Lancelot, in pursuit of the kidnapper of Queen Ginevra, he sits down in the magic cart of the benevolent Carla, thereby humiliating his dignity as a knight (criminals were taken to the execution) and thereby making the greatest feat of love crowned with trampling the bond of church marriage "sweet rewards ".

In the courteous lyrics, the plot and the figurative system are determined by its predominantly panegyric character; hence, on the one hand, the typification of the idealized image of the beloved, representing only a conditional complex of external and internal positive qualities; on the other hand, as a result of the sharp discord between the imaginary love and real relationships of the sovereign lady and her often artful miniseries, the prevalence of motives of futile service, vain hope (wân), in the epigone poésie de l'amour galant of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries , freezing the situation belle dame sans merci (beautiful and adamant mistress); here you also have to look for explanations to another popular motive of courtesan lyrics, which is one of its tops (common places), - complaints about evil love-minded envious people (lauzengier - merkaere).

But for the courteous worldview it’s not only indicative of updating the plot of the courteous epic and the courtyard lyrics - it is even more indicative of the growth of individual self-awareness in the courteous literature as a significant change in its creative method as a whole.

The heroic epic and secular lyrics of the early Middle Ages are built on the “method of external perception”: only the perceptible by sight and hearing is subject to consolidation by the word - the hero’s speech and actions can only guess about his experiences. Otherwise in the courteous literature. For the first time, troubadours are introduced into secular poetry “ introspective - creative method”, a style of psychological analysis. The external situation is given only in the traditional beginning - the spring conception formula: the rest of the lyrical work is devoted to the analysis of the poet's experiences, of course, according to the methods of the prevailing psychology of the Middle Ages - the methods of scholastic disclosure, enumeration and classification of abstract metaphysical concepts.

Hence the specific features of the style of courtesan lyrics: its attraction to abstract scholastic reasoning, to a scholarly and dark expression, sometimes understood only by those who know the terms of philosophy and theology (trobar clus of Provencal troubadours), to a game of personifications of abstract concepts (Love, Spirit, Thought, Heart) and complex allegories (such allegories are, for example, “the path of love through the eyes in the heart”, “seeing with the eyes of the heart”, “the debate of the heart with the body”, “abduction of the heart”, etc. tops of courtly lyrics, especially growing in epi Oni «poésie de l'amour galant» the XV century ). Hence the restructuring of the old lyrical genres with their primitive spring joy and an abundance of external action towards a monological (canzon - chanson, leys, descort, etc.) and dialogical (tenzon, partimen, joc partit, etc.) discussions of abstract problems love

But the introspective creative method dominates not only the lyrics, it also masters epic genres. Hence the main structural features of the courtesan novel among the classics of Chretien de Troyes , Hartmann von Aue , Gottfried of Strasbourg , namely, submission of the plot to the well-known theoretical task, its use for comprehensive coverage of the abstract problem, plotting the plot in an internal conflict; romans à thèse - witty calls Gaston Paris the courteous epic of Chretien. Hence the peculiarities of the composition of the courteous epic, which is easily observable and clearly articulated by the classics of the genre and only later by the epigones spreading into shapeless stringing of adventures. From here, finally, a detailed analysis of the experiences of the heroes, drawn up in monologues and dialogues often suppressing the plot. The growth of the poet’s self-identity finds expression in numerous author's retreats, introducing a strong element of didacticism into the courteous epos.

Allegory becomes a specific form of courtly didactics - in full accordance with the general rationality of courtly literature. Both the situation and individual events, as well as the external and internal qualities of the courteous hero and his ladies are subjected to allegorical interpretation - for example. Gottfried of Strasbourg has an allegorical description of the grotto in which the lovers of Tristan and Isolde are hiding. On the other hand, the introduction of the personifications of abstract concepts, which was mentioned above in the analysis of the style of courtly lyrics, is very typical for the courtly epos.

Playing an official role in the lyrics and the epic, allegory - along with the dialogue - is the dominant form of courtly didactics that makes extensive use of the forms of sleep , walk, vision (the famous “ Rose of the Rose ” is built on these motifs), which allegorically processes the images of hunting that are usual for a courtyard epic , ships, sieges, battle, descriptions of utensils, clothing, jewelry. The religious setting of Courtyard literature is reflected here not only in the use of forms of church poetry (theological allegory) for secular instruction, but also in the inclusion in the pantheon of the personifications of the courteous virtues of ancient deities - Venus , Cupid , etc.

With the updating of topics, topics and style in the Courtyard literature, the updating of the metric and language goes hand in hand. The language of Courtoise literature is characterized by clearly purist tendencies in the dictionary - in this respect a comparison, for example, is indicative. saturated with euphemisms le language with a rude and sometimes obscene dictionary fablio . Наряду с устранением социальных диалектизмов устраняются диалектизмы локальные, приводящие в некоторых странах к созданию подобия унифицированного языка литературы (die mittelhochdeutsche Hofsprache). Вместе с тем куртуазные поэты охотно насыщают свою речь учёными терминами философии и богословия , игрою синонимов и омонимов , обнаруживающей знание грамматических тонкостей; заметно развивается периодическая структура речи. В области метрики — благодаря типизации содержания и формалистическим тенденциям Куртуазной литературы — наблюдается эволюция и укрепление строгих форм. Наряду со сложной строфикой лирики в эпосе монотонная laisse monorime, скреплённая часто лишь ассонансами , заменяется рифмованным гибким и лёгким восьмисложным двустишием, изредка перебиваемым четверостишиями; в немецкой куртуазной эпопее ему соответствует четырёхударный стих с ограниченным заполнением без ударных слогов. Эти метрические формы Куртуазной литературы настолько типичны, что делались попытки положить именно показания метра в основу периодизации некоторых средневековых литератур.

С одной стороны, куртуазное мировоззрение раскрывается как утверждение и апология феодализма . Не только изображаемая действительность (даже при разработке сюжетов, заимствованных с Востока и у античных писателей) не мыслится иначе как в формах развитого феодализма; феодализируются, как мы видели, и отношения любовные. И куртуазный «схоласт любви» — Андрей Капеллан в своём латинском трактате «De amore» строжайшим образом классифицирует формы любовных объяснений по… сословным признакам: «Loquitur plebejus ad plebejam; plebejus nobili; plebejus nobiliori feminae; nobilis plebejae; nobilis nobili; nobilior plebejae; nobilior nobili; nobilior nobiliori».

Тщательному сословному отбору подвергаются герои куртуазного романа : знатная владетельная дама и её покорный вассал — странствующий рыцарь — в центре повествования; только в отношениях между «благородными» верность и преданность венчаются наградой: самоотверженная любовь слуг к господам — Бранжьены, отдающей свою честь ради Изольды , Люнеты, выручающей своими советами Ивейна , — изображается как нечто само собой разумеющееся. То же и в лирике. Та Любовь-служение, о которой говорилось выше — fin amor (утончённая любовь), строго ограничена сословно; и по отношению к вилланке — девушке низшего сословия — куртуазный поэт и рыцарь знает только грубую радость физического обладания — fol amor (безумную любовь), — порой связанную с прямым насилием (тематика пастурели ). И совсем редко промелькнет у классиков куртуазного стиля среди пышно разодетых фигур «изумительно уродливая и омерзительная» (« Окассен и Николетта ») тень оборванного мужика, чтобы стать у эпигонов — в момент обострения сословной борьбы — предметом грубого издевательства (немецкая rhöfische Dorfpoesie).

С другой стороны, как мы видели, Куртуазная литература своим антиспиритуалистическим прославлением земной радости отвергает учение Церкви (исследователи справедливо указывают на общность истоков нового мировоззрения и ряда ересей , отвергающих церковную иерархию и догматику и возникающих в крупных торговых городах Прованса ), своим индивидуализмом и космополитизмом — во имя гармонической личности — разрушая установленные в феодальном обществе родовые, племенные и даже вассальные связи. Понятие куртуазии становится оружием в первой робкой борьбе за права «худородного» (vilain). Трубадур Дофин Овернский защищает преимущества «худородного человека, вежественного и изысканного», перед «рыцарем и бароном, грубым, коварным и неучтивым»; и в латинском трактате «De nobilitate animi» «благородству душевному» отдаётся предпочтение перед «благородством крови». Отрицательное понятие «vilam» начинает терять своё исключительно социологическое содержание (название крестьянина и горожанина); оно становится внесословным обозначением «неучтивого», «невоспитанного» человека. И в прозиметрической повести « Окассен и Николетта » XIII в. впервые прозвучит сочувствие к горю батрака, потерявшего хозяйский скот (встреча Окассена с крестьянином).

В первых робких проблесках намечается в Куртуазной литературе новое мировоззрение, которое позднее оформится в философских и этических системах Ренессанса ; и не без основания некоторые исследователи Куртуазной литературы готовы дать ей наименование « Проторенессанса » (Vorrenaissance).

Социальным генезисом Куртуазной литературы легко объясняются и её исторические судьбы: её зарождение в XI в. в экономически наиболее передовом Провансе , её пути в XII в. в экономически прогрессивные Францию и Фландрию , её значительное (на целое столетие) запаздывание в экономически отсталой Германии . Социальной сущностью Куртуазной литературы легко объясняется и своеобразная неустойчивость нового мировоззрения Куртуазной литературы при большой устойчивости создаваемых ею новых форм, овладевающих в XIII — XIV вв. всеми жанрами средневековой литературы, в том числе такими, искони чуждыми и внутренне противоположными ей, как героический и шпильманский эпос, религиозная дидактика и легенда ; некоторые из этих жанров, как героический эпос , получают в куртуазных формах особое развитие.

Но эта огромная локальная и социальная экспансия форм Куртуазной литературы идёт за счёт утраты ею первоначальной идеологической сущности, за счёт превращения её в орудие феодально-церковной идеологии, в мире фикций — бесцельных и абстрактных авантюр небывалого «странствующего рыцарства» — дающей удовлетворение и утеху теряющему своё реальное значение классу. Необычайно показателен (в начале этого процесса феодализации Куртуазной литературы) выпад учёного горожанина Готфрида Страсбургского против апологета феодализма, пронизывающего мистическими элементами куртуазную фабулу, — рыцаря Вольфрама фон Эшенбаха : для куртуазного рационалиста ненавистен «vindaere wilder maere / der maere wilderaere» (изобретатель диких сказок, сказаний исказитель).

Социальной сущностью Куртуазной литературы объясняется и тот факт, что третье сословие усваивает её лишь в своей верхней, наиболее феодализированной прослойке [лирика городских puy во Франции и мейстерзанг (частично) в Германии; poesie de l'amour galant во Франции XV в]. Но победоносное выступление культуры Ренессанса , — несмотря на многообразные нити, связывающие его с Куртуазной литературой сладостный новый стиль является в равной мере и наследием и отрицанием куртуазной лирики, и Данте так же связан с трубадурами, как Бокаччо с куртуазным романом), goes under the sign of struggle with the forms of Courtyard literature, which has become the banner and instrument of reaction (epigones of the courtyard epic in Italian literature of the 15th century); even earlier, the broader masses of the third estate create in fablio , in didactic genres, in sotte chanson contre amour art forms diametrically opposed to the Courtyard literature.

• Courtesy
• Romance
• Le
• Minnesang
• Troubadours
• Troubadours of the Pyrenees
• Novel
• Epos
• Love Chess Book

in Russian

• Mikhailov A.D. French knightly novel. - M .: 1976.
• Dovgopolova O. A. “Delight in love law” - acceptance or rejection of the principle of pleasure (based on the materials of the Biographies of Troubadours) // The phenomenon of pleasure in culture. Materials of the international scientific forum on April 6-9, 2004 - St. Petersburg: Center for the Study of Culture, 2004. P. 124-127
• Duby J. Courtyard love and changes in the status of women in France of the 12th century // Odyssey. The man in history. 1990. M., 1990. S. 90-96.
• Meilakh M. B. The language of the troubadours. - M .: 1975.
• Smolitskaya O. V. Courtyard love // Dictionary of medieval culture. M., 2003.S. 253-255

in other languages

• Bezzola R. Les origines et la formation de la littérature courtoise en Occident. V. 1-2. - Genève-Paris: 1984.
• Bumke J. Höfische Kultur: Literatur und Gesellschaft im hohen Mittelalter. -München: 1997.
• Burnley D. Courtliness and literature in medieval England. - London: 1998.
• Courtly literature and clerical literature. - Tübingen: 2002.
• Du roman courtois au roman baroque. -P .: 2004.
• Frappier J. Amour courtois et Table Ronde. - Genève: 1973.
• Huchet J.-Ch. L'amour discourtois: la "fin'amors" chez les premiers troubadours. - Toulouse: 1987.
• L'imaginaire courtois et son double. - Napoli: 1992.
• Lafitte-Houssat J. Troubadours et cours d'amour. - Paris: 1979.
• Wolf B. Vademecum medievale: Glossar zur höfischen Literatur des deutschsprachigen Mittelalters. - Bern-Berlin: 2002.

• Medieval courtly literature Filolog Russian Planet

The article uses the text from the Literary Encyclopedia of 1929-1939 , which passed into the public domain , as the author - R. Shor - died in 1939.