History of Rome

In the history of the growth of ancient Rome as a city, several eras corresponding to the epochs of the territorial and state development of the Roman state can be noted. The first era represents the life of the city until it was strengthened by the so-called Servius wall and corresponds to the so-called royal period of the history of Rome, the second ends with Caesar's construction activities and corresponds to the era of the gradual transformation of the city-state into an empire; the third covers the time of the first emperors before Septimius Severus ; the fourth is time before the V century. n e. There is no exact information on the population of Rome in the republican and imperial eras; Belokh ^[1] determines the population of Rome during the time of Sulla in 400 thousand, and in the II – III centuries. n e. - 800 thousand people.

Tsarist period

The oldest settlements from the huts, related to the culture of the Iron Age , most likely appeared on the site of Rome long before the VIII century BC. e. They grew in the hills around a valley lying by the Tiber River.

The founding of Rome is known only thanks to legends and hypotheses, partially based on analogies. According to the most common legend, Rome was founded by Romulus on April 21, 753 BC. e. . Once, Romulus and Remus started arguing on the Palatine Hill about where to found the city, and decided to use fortune telling on the flight of birds . 6 kites flew over Rem, and 12 over Romulus. 12. Romulus began to make furrows, and Rem hopped through them. Romulus stated that this was a blasphemy and killed Rem, saying: "So it will be with everyone who crosses the walls of my city." There is also a version that Romulus said, “No one will cross the border of my city,” and it was just a trait and a few stones. Rem laughed and jumped over the line, after which he was killed by his brother. So Rome was founded. Romulus became his first king. This date is given by the historian Mark Terence Varron . Before him, the Romans called various dates between 758 and 728 BC. e.

There is no doubt that the center of Rome was the Palatine Hill and both its peaks Palatius and Zermal; all legends about the beginning of Rome, and the position of the hill in the center of the Roman system of hills and its configuration, which made it the most inaccessible, lead to it. There is no doubt, however, that Rome was not the only community that existed, in distant antiquity, within the limits of the present city. A different community, perhaps of a different nationality, has long lived on the opposite Palatine Quirinale . It is impossible to say whether there were separate communities on other hills. The literary tradition has preserved, based on religious rites preserved from ancient times (in historical time, the priestly collegium luperci - wolves - circled the ancient Palatine city), accurate data on the sacred border of the Palatine city (pomerium); monumental tradition indicates the course of actual fortifications. The sacred border was at the foot of the Palatine.

The territory of the city was presented to the Romans, like any sacred site, by a square; hence the name of the Palatine city - Roma quadrata ; the four corners of this square are known, which makes it possible to determine the true form of the original Rome, which probably came closer to the trapezoid than to the square. By analogy with other old Latin cities, one might think that the fortifications of the city went over the hill and consisted partly of man-made structures (possibly a rampart). In other places, the work of fortification was limited to scrubbing the already steep slopes. These fortifications survived, in large pieces, to our time. The so-called fondi di capanne - the recesses in the soil on which there were round huts of ancient Latins, and tombstones imitating these huts, with their wide doors and a conical roof - give us an idea of ​​those dwellings that covered the Palatine plateau. The shrines were probably of the same form, as the later round temples of the old Latin deities and the dwellings of the high priest and king show. The memory of this was preserved in relics of a later origin, such as the Faustula hut and the house of Romulus , preserved until the 4th century AD. e. It is possible that, along with round huts on the Palatine, they began to build quadrangular dwellings early. Maybe the Palatine city was already connected to the opposite bank of the Tiber with a wooden bridge, built even when neither iron nor bronze nails were in use (late pons Sublicius ). In connection with the Palatine city, there were probably two ancient roads, later streets: New and Sacred ; but neither their relationship to the city, nor their relationship with each other is still clear. Among the later fortifications, the old gates of the city (porta Mugonia, porta Romanula) were probably preserved. It is not known how long the small Palatine community existed in its original volume.

In the next stage of development, the fortified city has grown greatly and has already covered 7 hills - Septimontium - partly surrounded by an earthen rampart (murus terreus). The existence of this stage is evidenced by religious rites in which 7 mountains are one. Only these 7 hills - not the well-known Seven hills of Rome , but smaller divisions, namely, according to Antistius of Labeon - Palatius with Zermal (two peaks of the Palatine hill), Velia - the hill between Palatine and Esquiline , Fagutal Karina (height, by which now stands S. Pietro in Vincoli ), Cispius and Oppius - the two peaks of Eskvilina, and Subura , the western slope of the latter and the valley between them (maybe instead of the latter you need to insert part of Celius - Sucusa). The question of the composition of Septimontius remains, however, controversial; it is also unclear how Septimontius arose - whether by the unification of communities sitting on separate peaks, or the expansion of the Palatine community; most likely the latter. Both tradition and topographic data clearly indicate the existence of a city washed by two streams (in the valleys of Velabrum and vallis Murcia) and occupying a trapezoidal plateau, so common in the Roman Campania and so convenient for the emergence of a fortified center. The inhabitants of the community that sprang up on the Quirinale (collis Quirinalis or simply collis; hence the name of the inhabitants of the community - Collini), once connected with their neighbors (montani), and from this connection a city arose, bearing in modern science the name of the city of four quarters (urbs quattuor regionum ) Three of them - regio Palatina, Esquilina and Suburana - belonged to the old city, the fourth was a new community - regio Collina.

And about this city there are only vague memories in later religious rites. The main evidence of its existence is that the sacred border of the city ( Pomeria ) until the time of Sulla covered only a city of four quarters. Monuments of this period of the life of Rome were not preserved; of the monuments referred to by tradition, the sanctuaries of the mysterious Argeev are usually referred to this period, which every year in historical time was circumvented by a solemn procession. The ancient origin of the Argeev procession, however, is disputed, and not without good reason. The city of four quarters was topographically and strategically not an integral creation; it did not include such strategically important and topographically closely connected points as the Capitol and Aventin . Therefore, it is likely that the first attempt to strengthen the city after community consolidation led to the expansion of its territory, disproportionate to the population, but necessary from a strategic point of view. The dimensions of this new fortified city are precisely known to us, since part of its fortifications have been preserved to our time: this is the so-called Servius wall , the construction of which Roman historical science mistakenly attributed to Tsar Servius .

Roman historians call the seven kings. The first was Romulus, the second was Numa Pompilius , who, unlike Romulus, ruled peacefully and gave Rome the first laws, and his adviser was the nymph Egeria . The third king is Tullus Gostilius , the fourth is Ankh Marcius , the fifth is Tarquinius the Ancient , then Servius Tullius and Tarquinius the Proud . He, according to legend, ascended the throne through the corpse of a murdered predecessor, ruled cruelly, and was eventually expelled from Rome (according to Roman historians - in 510 BC). After that, a republican system of government was established in Rome, in which the Senate and two consuls , who were elected for a year, played a decisive role.

Republican Rome

The city, in the dimensions in which it was surrounded by the Servius Wall , existed until late republican time and entered a new phase of development only under Augustus . The time of the appearance of the wall is unknown to us; the tradition relating it to the middle of the VI century BC. e., undoubtedly wrong. The wall was erected much later, as its comparison with similar buildings in Lacy proves. Large fortifications were needed only between the hills, that is, between Aventin and Celius and between Celius and Esquiline. The most difficult thing was to fortify Rome from the side where Esquiline leaves for Campania in the form of a wide plateau: here a part of the well-known and still agger arose - a rampart representing a truly grandiose structure (an earth embankment of about 15 meters in height and more than a kilometer in length was fortified outside a 4-meter-thick wall; in front of the wall there is a moat 9 meters deep and 30 meters wide). From the inside, the shaft was also protected by a wall and later by an attached counterscarp . From the Tiber, the fortifications reached the river itself, including part of the river bank, with the only bridge of the ancient city. Numerous gates (37) provided access to the city. The most important of them were: Kapensky Gate , between Aventin and Celius, from which the Appian Way came out; The Esquiline Gate in front of the rampart from which the Tiburtinskaya Road exited ; The Collins Gate , between Quirinale and Esquiline, at the end of the rampart from which the Nomenenta and Salt Roads led; porta Fontinalis (?) in the north-west, from where the Flaminian road went north, and, finally, the Triple Gate , in two spans, by the river, where the Ostian road went to the sea. Within the wall, individual hills had their own special fortifications, for example the Palatine, the remains of the walls of which, modern to the remnants of the Servius wall, have survived to our time, and the Capitol, one part of which bore even the technical name arx (it was strengthened all). The remains of the fortifications were preserved on other hills, especially on the Quirinale. The existence of these fortifications is explained by the fact that there were fortifications on the hills before, as well as by the fact that they were necessary to the fortified city, which did not have a natural acropolis.

When building fortifications, the city was by no means densely populated; its outskirts were mostly covered with forest, which again required the strengthening of individual hills. Inside the Servian Wall, republican Rome develops, its main arteries are created, the main squares and public buildings, mainly churches, appear.

The central square is the valley between the Palatine and the Quirinal, the square is forum κατ'έςογήν. This is where the most important streets diverge: via sacra , rising to the main shrine of Rome - the temple of Jupiter of Capitoline - parallel to it, at the foot of the Palatine, via nova and others. Another important area inside the city was the market on the banks of the Tiber - forum boarium , the busiest trading part of the city ; next door, but outside the city walls, in prata Flaminia, was the vegetable market - Forum Holitorium . Along the ridge of the old city on the Quirinale, two old streets walked parallel to each other: a long one (vicus longus) and a patricieva (vicus patricius). On Aventine, the main and oldest street was clivus publicius, which ran from the Tiber up to the temple of Diana. On the Tiber, with the development of the city, stone bridges appear, first Emiliev - pons Aemilius , and then, across the island, two bridges: Fabricho Bridge and Cestio Bridge . The public buildings of republican Rome are almost all religious in nature: temples and temples, curiae - meeting places for the holy colleges, altars and altars. All this is not monumental, rich buildings, but modest buildings, with clay painted decorations.

The number of temples of republican Rome proves the deep religiosity of the Roman people; in each part of the city, on the basis of far from incomplete tradition, several large sanctuaries can be counted. Especially rich was the old cults, mostly of foreign origin, the Bull Forum. Here, the legend of the presence of Hercules in Italy was localized (the ancient ara maxima dedicated to Hercules and his round temple near the altar). Here was the temple of the ancient triad of Ceres, Liber, Libera, built, according to legend, in 496. The surviving quadrangular temple of the republican time - the temple of Portune - cannot be identified with any of the temples mentioned in the literature of this era. Beyond the sacred borders of the city, they found refuge in the hospitable for foreign gods, Rome and Latin Diana on Aventina, and Greek Apollo, in prata Elaminia, and the tribe Mercury in the circus valley, and Asclepius (Aesculapius) on the island of Tiberina (in 291 BC. .). The captive Minerva capta from Falerius settled on Celius, Minerva medveda (medica) - on the border of Pomeria, on the eastern slope of Oppius.

Buildings of the secular nature of the republican time, especially those that belong to ancient times, are much less witnessed to us. In addition to the Senate building , a tribune for speeches (late Rostra ) and a place where foreign ambassadors spoke (graecostasis) - structures closely connected with the political life of Rome and therefore related to hoary antiquity - about other public buildings of a secular nature until the 3rd century BC n e. no evidence. One cannot call building a spectacle spectacle in the valley between Aventin and the Palatine ( Circus Maximus ). Only when the city grew, when the community received large funds, when private individuals acquired great wealth, did the era of public buildings begin in Rome. The beginning was laid by Appius Claudius by conducting the first water supply through Aventin to the trading part of the city ( aqua Appia ), in 312. After 40 years, a new water supply system ( Anio Vetus ); For 150 years, Rome has been content with these two water pipelines, until at the end of the second and first centuries, three new water pipelines appear, one after another. The first permanent spectacle building - Circus Flaminius - was built only in 221, the first covered markets and meeting places for business people and litigants (basilica) - at the beginning of the second century ( Portia Basilica - in 184, basilica Fulvia - in 179, Sempronius Basilica - in 171); maybe even earlier macellum arose - a slaughterhouse and a meat market. The first portico known to us - porticus Minucia (110), on the Field of Mars - is apparently associated with grain distributions to the people. The first permanent theater was built only by Pompey .

Initially, large parts of the urban area were covered with groves; on the hills towered fortresses of noble families. With the development of democracy, they disappear, and Rome takes on an increasingly urban look. The main streets are built up with houses and shops; Dwellings, especially by the river, quickly cross the city line, creating suburbs. The aristocracy builds vast houses with gardens and parks; the borders of pomeria and the walls are becoming shy. Rome begins to grow upward, especially in those parts where poor people lived. There is a type of houses consisting of separate apartments (insulae); he dominates in imperial time. In addition to valleys, hillsides are also being built. The slopes of the Capitol, the Palatine and the places adjacent to the forum are especially appreciated. The general view of the city is far from attractive: narrow, mostly unpaved streets with insufficient sewerage; on hillsides often stepped paths (semitae); the streets are more and more narrowed by annexes, mainly shops. Poorly built houses are crumbling more than once, especially during the frequent spills of the Tiber and fires. Modern analogies of this stage of development of Rome cannot be found; present eastern cities, like ancient Rome in everything else, do not have 4- and 5-story buildings, so characteristic of crowded republican Rome. In the era of the republic, the practical mind of the Roman is directed more than anything at increasing and profitable placement of capital; hence the construction of hastily, from the cheapest material and to as many floors as possible. This type of construction was the reason for the constant complaints of the population about the oppression of the rent, the unsatisfactory state of the city in a sanitary and aesthetic sense, and the high cost of places for construction. The political power of capital did not give room for reforms in this direction. In the last troubled years of the republic, the majority of citizens had no time to improve the conditions of urban life, not to build new public buildings, or even to maintain old ones.

Imperial Rome before Septimius Severus

The first manifestations of the monarchist idea lead to a gradual change in the city. The expansion of Somlius' pomeria and the construction of Pompey were preceded by the activities of Caesar and Augustus. Entire towns that arose at the Tiber, on the Champ de Mars , behind the Kapensky Gates, along the Appian Way , had to become legally parts of the city, in which they actually belonged. Only in this way could we create tolerable living conditions in the city center, divert life to the outskirts and provide more space for public buildings in the center.

Caesar erects a new Senate building and lays the foundation for a new colossal basilica on the western side of the forum, named after him. He also owns the idea of ​​creating a new territory for public buildings on the Champ de Mars and connecting a number of public and religious buildings near the forum with the new city on the Champ de Mars. The first of these tendencies found expression in the construction of the portico for voting on the Champ de Mars ( Saepta Julia ), the second in the creation of artificial squares (fora), which in essence are nothing more than peribolas (courtyards) around the central temple. Первой из них была Юлиева площадь с храмом Венеры-Прародительницы (Venus Genetrix), прародительницы Юлиев.

Полное осуществление планы Цезаря нашли только при Августе , созданием которого был новый город четырнадцати кварталов . Рим с этого времени теряет свой характер укреплённого города, пространство внутри Сервиевой стены окончательно застраивается, в пределы города входят и предместья. В состав города входят всё Марсово поле и значительное пространство между Тибром и Аппиевой дорогой, далее большой квартал за Тибром ( trans Tiberim ). Другие предместья были гораздо меньших размеров. Улучшению санитарных условий города, как делу гораздо более трудному, Август мог положить только начало. Оно выразилось в увеличении количества водопроводов тремя новыми и особенно в урегулировании канализации города.

На Римском форуме , кроме реставрации и перестройки храмов, достройке курии и Юлиевой базилики , Августу принадлежит постройка храма Цезарю и нового центра политической жизни Рима, перешедшей теперь на форум и сосредоточившейся вокруг новой народной трибуны, новых ростр . В pendant к Юлиевой площади возникла соединённая с нею топографически площадь Августа , с храмом Марса мстителя (Mars Ultor), чем сделан был новый шаг к соединению центра с Марсовым полем. На самом Марсовом поле вырастают новые храмы (например, Пантеон , в его первоначальной форме), появляются первые бани ( Термы Агриппы ), обширные портики, театры ( Марцелла и Бальба ). К постройкам религиозного характера относится и Алтарь Мира на Марсовом поле, выстроенный в честь побед Августа в Галлии и Испании. Личной идеей Августа в переустройстве города является создание на Палатине, рядом с реликвиями царского Рима, местопребывания новых владык — постройка дворца (Palatium), в связи с которым стоял храм Аполлона и древней Весты. 62 храма обязаны Августу своим восстановлением. Деление города на кварталы и создание особой полиции в лице пожарных (vigiles) содействовало общему упорядочению строительной деятельности и санитарных условий. Коренного изменения в общем характере Рима произойти, однако, не могло, и тип улиц вряд ли сильно изменился; разница была только та, что теперь частные дома богатых граждан получили больше простора, благодаря движению населения к окраинам; вероятно, и цены на земли в городе упали, с исчезновением капиталов, нажитых спекуляцией, и с расширением городской территории: иначе трудно понять, откуда могли быть покрыты Августом колоссальные издержки на приобретение мест для его построек. Меняется при Августе и техника домостроительства; для монументальных построек пользуются преимущественно мрамором и травертином; прекратившаяся строительная горячка позволяет и частным владельцам обратить большее внимание на внешность своих жилищ.

Почти каждый из последующих императоров расширяет императорский дворец на Палатине . Калигула стремится соединить Палатин колоссальными сооружениями с форумом, специально с храмом Кастора, и с Капитолием, то есть с храмом Юпитера Капитолийского. Расширение сакральных границ Рима, то есть померия, сделано было и Цезарем, и Августом, но об их деятельности в этом направлении ничего не известно, между тем как аналогичная деятельность Клавдия засвидетельствована пограничными камнями.

Эпоху в жизни города составило правление Нерона , более, однако, в отрицательном, чем в положительном смысле. Ему косвенно или непосредственно обязан Рим тем, что в центре его появилось огромное пространство, свободное от построек. Возникло оно вследствие известного пожара , совершенно уничтожившего кварталы между Палатином и Эсквилином и сильно повредившего другие, особенно центральные части города. Сам Нерон воспользовался последствиями пожара для осуществления своей идеи расширения палатинского дворца вплоть до Эсквилина, то есть для создания особого императорского города; но исполнению этой идеи было положено только начало, Золотой дом Нерона далеко не был доведён до конца. Печальную картину представлял Рим во время смут, последовавших за смертью Нерона: ряд начатых построек Золотого дома по соседству с опустевшим и обгорелым центром и разрушенным Капитолием, в уцелевших домах постои солдат, на улицах постоянные смуты и борьба.

Только с утверждением на престоле династии Флавиев Рим оживляется и вновь поднимается из руин, на этот раз более красиво и целесообразно построенным. Ряд мер полицейского характера меняет вид улиц; о новой распланировке города нет речи, но новые дома имеют более благообразный вид: одной из мер Веспасиана было, например, обязательное снабжение каждого дома портиком , благодаря чему улицы получали вид крытых галерей. Свободным пространством после пожара Флавии воспользовались для своих монументальных построек. Веспасиан не мог сочувствовать идее нероновского Золотого дома; его территорией он воспользовался для ряда колоссальных построек. В долине между Палатином и Эсквилином возник и теперь ещё стоящий амфитеатр — Колизей , вокруг него — ряд построек служебного характера; недалеко оттуда, на Целии , вырос колоссальный храм, окружённый портиками и посвящённый памяти божественного Клавдия. Веспасиан и в этом храме Клавдия, и в храме Мира , почти примкнувшем к форуму Августа, повторял идею императорских форумов. Храм Мира (форум Веспасиана), возникший в связи с прежними площадями, но по направлению к Колизею, а не к Марсову полю, показывает, что Веспасиану желательно было связать центр города с территорией Золотого дома. В том же направлении идёт деятельность его преемников: Тит воздвигает рядом с Колизеем свои термы , Домициан связывает форум Мира с комплексом площадей первых императоров так называемой проходной площадью (forum transitorium), с храмом Минервы; постройку этой площади заканчивает Нерва .

Деятельность первых императоров блестящим образом довершает Траян ; он окончательно связывает ряд императорских площадей с Марсовым полем своей колоссальной площадью ( forum Traianum ). Создание места для площади потребовало сноса склона Квиринала , препятствовавшего соединению низины форума с Марсовым полем; не меньше труда и затрат потребовало внутреннее украшение площади, в центре которой находились храм приемного отца Траяна и Колонна Траяна . С другой стороны Траян продолжал деятельность Флавиев: рядом с термами Тита возникают его термы , гораздо больших размеров и гораздо более богатые.

Главным созданием Адриана был Храм Венеры и Ромы на Велии, которым закончено было превращение центральной части города в ряд блестящих построек, связывавших форум с Марсовым полем с одной стороны и с площадью у Колизея — с другой. Судя по сохранившимся остаткам, промежутки между храмом Мира и храмом Венеры были заполнены зданиями общественного характера, может быть, остатками Нероновского дома, на которых впоследствии возникла колоссальная базилика Константина . За Тибром Адриан выстроил себе мавзолей, существующий ныне в виде крепости св. Ангела ; там же возник в это время и новый цирк. Много крупных перестроек Адриан произвел на Палатине, особенно на склоне к форуму и на склоне к via Appia, где ему обязаны своим существованием стадий-палестра и прилегавшие к нему бани, входившие в комплекс новой части дворца. Пантеон , в том виде, в каком он теперь существует, возник во времена Адриана: и ротонда, и купол принадлежат этому времени; об этом свидетельствуют кирпичные штемпели времени Адриана, преобладающие во всем здании. Те же штемпели находятся во множестве и в других зданиях. Деятельность кирпичных заводов Адриана была настолько широка, что целое поколение после него живёт заготовленными им материалами. То же надо сказать и о привозных мраморах, наводнивших в это время доки на берегу Тибра.

Деятельность Антонина и Марка Аврелия не ознаменовалась выдающимися постройками; последнему принадлежит только погребальное место династии Антонинов около колонны , воздвигнутой в честь Антонина, и pendant к Траяновой колонне (так называемая Колонна Марка Аврелия ). В правление Коммода произошёл разрушительный пожар 191 года, потребовавший при Септимии Севере ряда восстановлений и исправлений. В своей монументальной деятельности Септимий следовал Адриану. Все постройки последнего в северо-восточном углу Палатина выросли вверх: и стадий, и прилегавший дворец. У подножия Палатина возникло колоссальное декоративное здание Септизония , а также термы Севера, вероятно незначительных размеров; до нас от них ничего не сохранилось. Импонирующие руины свидетельствуют о великолепии и колоссальных размерах терм Каракаллы в той же части города. Север и Каракалла были последними императорами, строительная деятельность которых сильно изменила облик Рима; после них, если и возникает новое, то оно только дополняет строительную деятельность первых веков империи, не создавая ни новых архитектурных форм и даже не достигая оригинальных эффектов новым применением старых форм. Рим в эту эпоху вполне оправдывал те гимны, которые пелись его великолепию. Если постройки его и не отличались красотой деталей, то они поражали колоссальностью и декоративностью. Даже грубоватые детали терм Каракаллы в надлежащем освещении и на надлежащем расстоянии декоративно безупречны. Декоративный блеск вызывался главным образом материалом: разноцветными мраморами античных зданий жила строительная деятельность пап, бронза памятников служила предметом грабежа начиная с V до XVI вв.; наконец, памятники искусства наполняют собой и до сих пор сотни общественных и тысячи частных собраний.

При Севере на внутренней стене Храма Мира была размещена подробная карта города — Forma Urbis Romae , фрагменты которой были найдены в 1562 году антикваром и скульптором Джованни Антонио Дозио близ Базилики Косьмы и Дамиана и помещены в Капитолийские музеи .

Монументальный характер придавала Риму масса общественных построек. Наиболее характерными для Рима являются следующие архитектурные формы, повторявшиеся и варьировавшиеся. Во-первых, так называемые императорские площади , то есть храмы с большим периболом со множеством почётных памятников и произведений искусства: статуй, и конных, и пеших, и на колесницах; колонн — простых и с изображениями; бюстов в нишах; жертвенников и алтарей; изображений богов, по большей части греческого происхождения, и т. д. Здесь, на этих площадях, сидели императорские чиновники в своих канцеляриях; здесь же помещались архивы и библиотеки. Под понятие императорской площади подходит и ряд зданий, не носивших этого технического имени; тот же характер имеют многие храмы, например храм Аполлона на Палатине — настоящий музей произведений греческого ваяния, рядом с которым имелась обширная библиотека, — храм Венеры и Ромы на Велии, храм Клавдия на Целии и другие; и Капитолий был в сущности выразителем той же архитектурной формы.

Close to this architectural form came the numerous porticos (quadortics) that filled the Field of Mars in a particularly large number. These are the same squares, only without a central temple; it also housed offices and other public institutions, and sometimes trade establishments. These porticoes and squares can be considered a further development of the idea that was implemented in the republican basilica; not without reason between the basilicas of Augustus and Constantine lies only one basilica of Trajan, an integral part of its forum. Porticos were often part of a complex of buildings connected to theaters. The number of the latter has not increased since August; the same three continued to exist - Pompey, Marcellus and Balba, all on the Field of Mars. The number of other spectacular buildings increased: a large circus constantly expanded, rising farther and farther along the hillsides; at the end of his existence, he contained a huge number of spectators, greatly exaggerated, however, in literary tradition. Next to it Flaminiev circus continued to exist and circuses of Caligula and Adrian appeared beyond the Tiber. Greek exercises found refuge in the Domitian stage on the Field of Mars (now Piazza Navona ). The elected public had access to the palace stages on the Palatine. Gladiator games were held in the large amphitheater of Flavius; there was also an amphitheater on the eastern outskirts of the city ( Amphitheatrum Castrense ). For naval gladiatorial battles, a series of navigas was arranged, all almost beyond the Tiber; more precisely, one of them, dug by Augustus, is known. Imperial baths were also something new in the architecture of the ancient world, both in combining ordinary Greco-Roman bathhouses with museums, libraries, palettes, and in execution. Such a connection brought to life huge buildings, where Roman architecture, with its arches and domes covering enormous spans, found the most complete development. These terms are spread all over Rome: on the Champ de Mars - the terms of Agrippa and Nero, on the Quirinale - on Constantine, on the Viminal - on Diocletian , on Esquiline - on Titus and Trajan, on Aventine - on the North and Caracalla, more and more on the outskirts of the city, since only there one could find the necessary space for these giants. Not inferior in magnificence to public buildings and many private houses of noble people flocking to the center of the empire. Of particular importance for the general character of the city, however, were not so much these houses as the gardens of emperors and private people - urban villas that covered all the outskirts of the city, especially the hill of gardens adjacent to the Field of Mars (collis hortorum, now Monte Pincio ). It is easiest to imagine them by comparison with country villas, for example, Adrian's villa or villas of nobility of the Renaissance: the same richness of water in fountains, nymphs , grottoes, the same clipped greenery, the same dozens of pavilions and other small buildings that arose on the whim of the owners. Along with brilliant public and private buildings, the former type of multi-storey buildings with hundreds of separate apartments, where the poor and middle class huddled, continued to reign in Rome. The lower floors were filled with shops, workshops, zucchini, etc. institutions. All this was widely open onto the street, everything was done in front of the passing people, as now, for example, in Naples. The streets remained narrow, cramped and dirty, although the ugliness of republican Rome was put to an end. All streets are paved, some are regulated, everywhere the correct sewage system, everywhere the abundance of water that 11 water pipelines carry to the city. The streets are framed by porticos; in places, marble triumphal arches tower above them, the arches of Titus , the North , and Constantine serve as examples of us. Hundreds of private baths satisfy needs for which the terms are insufficient. Lively commercial and business life continues to boil in the markets, and especially on the banks of the Tiber, where imperial and private warehouses and shops grow one after another; here they upload everything that they send to Rome provinces, especially the East - Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, India. The main role is played by the grain depots, where the stocks for feeding the Roman mob are stored; next to them a huge space is occupied by warehouses of marble and building materials (now marmorata). Hundreds of stores were available for other items; for example, in horrea (for paper and pepper), thousands of workers were employed and a special large working quarter appeared around them. Here the Tiber serves as the main trading artery; above it separates the new, Zatiber quarter from the old city; 8 bridges were thrown across it, of which the emperors built the bridges Aurelius ( Marcus Aurelius ), Aelius ( Adrian ) and Probi ( Prob ). Outside the city, along the main roads, there are tombs of rich and poor people and villas of townspeople.

Imperial Rome after Septimius Severus

From the 3rd century construction activity is weakening; only occasionally is it heard of new buildings, and then usually material of crumbling old ones goes on them. Of the new buildings, only the terms of Constantine and Diocletian are remarkable; the Basilica of Constantine at the Sacred Road, the temples of the Sun of Aurelian on the Palatine and the Field of Mars. The gradual expansion of Pomeria after Claudius brings it more and more to the actual borders of the city (the extensions under Vespasian and Hadrian are precisely witnessed); only the Field of Mars, where the army gathers before triumph and where the remains of Augustus and Antoninov rests, remains outside of Pomerania. The real border is the customs line, which coincides with the limit line of the Adrianovo Pomeria everywhere except the Field of Mars.

At the end of the 3rd century, under Aurelianus and his successor Test, the border was fixed by fortifications; Rome again became a fortified city. New fortifications - the Wall of Aurelian - covered the whole city with its zatibra part. They coincided with the customs line and partly with the border of Pomeria, but in many cases tombs (including the Cestius pyramid and the tomb of Eurisak ) were also introduced into the walls. The wall has survived to our time almost throughout its entire length. It is built very firmly; behind the external wall (brick, like all other buildings), at 1.33 m, there is a series of pillars connected by arches connected to the wall by a vault, along the battlements there are a total thickness of 3.80 m, height 16 m; in some places quadrangular towers; in the wall there are 14 gates flanked by round towers.

Under the first Christian emperor Constantine , two of the four great, or patriarchal, basilica of Rome were laid - St. Peter's Basilica at the site of the martyrdom of Peter in the circus of Nero and St. Paul’s Basilica outside the city walls above Paul’s grave. The building of St. Peter's Basilica, which later became the ceremonial center of the Roman Catholic Church, lasted until the 16th century. The St. Paul’s Basilica, on the contrary, did not undergo significant changes either during the Renaissance or in the Baroque era, and allows us to get an idea of ​​the Roman architecture of this period.

The history of the destruction of Rome begins in the 4th century. In 410, Rome stormed and plundered Alaric , in 455 - vandals who were attracted to the city by the unrest. Vandals betrayed the city and robbed churches in a special way. Under the last emperors of the Western Roman Empire, the actual power passed into the hands of the commander Ricimer , whose squads, when changing one emperor to another, repeatedly ruined Rome. Finally, in 476, Herul Odoacre deposed the last Western Roman emperor, but soon in turn gave way to the Ostrogoth Theodoric , whose reign marked the beginning of extensive restoration work in the city. Under Odoacer and Theodoric, the city’s governance retained its former external forms: it was still headed by the Senate; the representative of the king, most of whom lived in Ravenna , was the prefect. In the Byzantine war with the Ostrogoths (536–552), Rome was besieged six times and passed from hand to hand. At the same time, the Ostrogothic kings, especially Totil , took numerous hostages from among the inhabitants of Rome, which led to the destruction of the most noble families of Rome and reduced the population of the city to 30-40 thousand people.

Over the next two centuries (570–750), when a significant part of Italy was torn away from Byzantium by the Lombards , the popes began to play a dominant role in the secular affairs of the city with the nominal subordination of a weak Byzantine Empire ( Ravenna exarch ). On the basis of the authority that Justinian granted the local bishops with respect to all governance in the provinces, Pope Gregory I took over the right to oversee the actions of the rulers. After an unsuccessful attempt by Emperor Leo III to support in Italy edicts against icon worship, Rome became threatened by the real dominance of the Lombard king, and Pope Stephen II (III) turned to the Franks for help. Pipin Korotky, after his campaign on the Lombards, gave the pope the territory of the former Ravenna Exarchate , made him sovereign of the Papal Region . At the same time, Pepin received the rather uncertain rights of the Roman patrician and defender of the church, and the pope continued to recognize the nominal supremacy over Rome for the Byzantine emperor.

The papal region as a relatively independent state with its capital in Rome lasted until Risorgimento and the unification of Italy.

Although emperors who left Rome continue to support separate buildings, these restorations are only exceptions; most public buildings are slowly being destroyed. Only Theodorich tried to develop a wide restoration work, but it did not help for long. The destruction of buildings was accompanied by the theft of jewelry made of bronze, marble and other expensive material. In this, Byzantium competes with the barbarians.

With the rise of the popes, the Basilica of St. Peter plays an increasingly important role in the city and the city center moves to the Vatican Hill , around which new defensive structures are already being built under Leo IV . There is no exact information about the beginning of the construction of the Vatican Palace : some attribute it to Constantine the Great , others attribute the original construction to the time of Pope Symmachus (VI century). It is only certain that during the arrival of Charlemagne in Rome for coronation, the palace on the Vatican hill served as the residence of Pope Leo III; but then the palace was neglected, and the residence of the pope was transferred to the Lateran Palace . Only since the popes returned from Avignon (1377) did the Vatican finally become a permanent papal residence.

Old buildings, with the exception of those in which Christian churches or feudal fortresses found refuge, are being destroyed unhindered. So the mausoleum of Hadrian , favorably located near the Vatican Hill, even during the construction of the walls of Aurelian became a small fortress, and eventually turned into an impregnable papal Castle of the Holy Angel , withstood several sieges (including in 1527, during the last looting of Rome ) . Among the churches erected in ancient buildings, the following can be distinguished:

• Church of Cosmas and Damian - in the temple of Romulus on the forum,
• Santa Francesca Romana on the ruins of the Temple of Venus and Roma on the forum;
• Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda - in the church of Antoninus and Faustina ,
• the church of San Giuseppe de Faleni - above the Mamertino prison ;
• Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli - in one of the halls of the term Diocletian (Michelangelo, 1561);
• the church of Santa Maria (Santa Maria ad Martyres) was erected in the Pantheon ;
• the church of Santo Stefano Rotondo - on the foundation of the ancient Macellum magnum (built under Simplicia in 468, restored in the 16th century, decorated with Tempesta and Pomeranzio images of the martyrs).

Among the early Christian basilicas are the following:

• St. Agnes , 7th century;
• San Bartolomeo ;
• Santa Cecilia in Trastevere (founded in 499) with a marble ark above the altar - Arnolfo di Cambio (1283) and a statue of St. Cecilia - Maderny (1600);
• The Basilica of St. Clement (392), rebuilt in the XII century (frescoes of Masaccio) - under it, excavations of 1858 discovered the ancient basilica with paintings of the XI century and the remains of ancient Roman buildings;
• San Giorgio in Velabro (VII century);
• Santi Giovanni e Paolo (XII century; under it, in 1887–90, a more ancient church was discovered with Byzantine paintings, and the dwellings of St. John and the Martyr Paul, with frescoes of the 2nd – 4th and 5th centuries were found even deeper);
• the church of San Gregorio Magno , in the place where Gregory the Great lived, with frescoes by Domenichino and Guido Reni ;
• Church of San Marco , with mosaics of the 6th century and a porch by Giuliano da Mayano (1465);
• Santa Maria in Aracheli (9th c., With 22 antique columns and frescoes of Pinturicchio );
• Santa Maria in Cosmedin , 3rd century (?), rebuilt by Pope Adrian I (712), restored in 1892;
• Santa Maria in Domnica with 18 antique granite columns;
• Santa Maria in Trastevere (V c., Mosaics of 1148);
• S.-Martino-ai-Monti ( Basilica dei Santi Silvestro e Martino ai Monti , 500, rebuilt in 1650, painting by Gaspard Dughet );
• Santa Prassede (V century, expanded in 820);
• Santa Pudenziana (considered the first time Roman church, founded by the apostle Peter in the house of Senator Pudenza; mosaics of the 4th century);
• San Pietro in Vincoli , laid (442) by Empress Evdokia for storing chains of St. Petra; in the right nave, the tomb of Julius II with the famous statue of Moses Michelangelo ;
• Santi Quattro Coronati (V century, with frescoes of the XIII century);
• Santa Sabina (V century; 22 Corinthian columns).

From the Gothic style churches only one stands out, Santa Maria sopra Minerva (1285), with a statue of Christ ( Michelangelo ), frescoes by Filippino Lippi , tombs of Leo X and other popes.

The beginning of the construction of the new Vatican Palace at the end of the 15th century marked another heyday in the history of Rome, when prominent Renaissance and Baroque masters worked in the city, and significant funds were spent on the construction of new ones and the reconstruction of the old ones.

At this time, the most important elements of the ensembles of the main squares of Rome are taking shape:

• St. Peter's Square with the famous Bernini colonnade (1667), the obelisk (1586) and two fountains of Maderna,
• Capitoline Square ,
• Kvirinal Square , with two marble colossi (Dioscuri, taming horses),
• Colonna Square (with a column of Marcus Aurelius , in the middle of Corso Street - the busiest point in the city),
• Monte Chitorio square, in front of the parliament building, with an ancient Egyptian obelisk,
• Piazza Navona , with 3 colossal fountains and the Bernini obelisk (1650),
• Spanish Square , with the famous staircase (1725) to the church of Santa Trinita de Monti ,
• Trevi Square with the fountain of the same name by N. Salvi (1762),
• Campo dei Fiori with a vegetable market.

From temples in the Renaissance and Baroque styles are issued:

• Sant'Agostino (1479), with frescoes (the prophet Isaiah) Raphael and the "Madonna" Sansovino ;
• Sant Andrea della Valle (1591) and San Carlo ai Catinari (1612) - both with frescoes by Domenicino and magnificent domes;
• San Carlo al Corso (1612);
• Il Gesu (Vignola, 1568) - the main Jesuit temple;
• Sant Ignazio (1626–75), with frescoes by Pozzi;
• San Giovanni dei Fiorentini , started by Sansovino and completed by Giacomo della Porta, designed by Michelangelo;
• San Lorenzo in Damazo (1495);
• San Luigi dei Franchezi , the main church of French Catholics, with frescoes of Domenichino, built by Giacomo della Porta (1589);
• Санта-Мария-делл-Анима , главная церковь немецких католиков, построена Джулиано ди Сангалло (1507);
• Санта Мария делла Паче , с сивиллами Рафаэля и расписанной папертью Пьетро да Кортоны;
• Санта-Мария-дель-Пополо (1477), с фресками Пинтуриккио и капеллой Киджи;
• Санта-Мария-ин-Валличелла (называемая также Кьеза Нуова), построена Филиппо Нери в 1550 году, с живописью Рубенса;
• Санта-Мария-делла-Виттория , построена в 1620 году в память сражения под Белой горой , со знаменитой группой св. Терезы (Бернини);
• Сантиссимо-Номе-ди-Мария , в память освобождения Вены от турецкой осады (1683);
• Сант-Онофрио-аль-Джаниколо , с гробницей Тассо;
• Сан-Пьетро-ин-Монторио , главная церковь испанских католиков (1500), с фресками Себастьяно дель Пьомбо; в примыкающем к ней монастырском дворе — ротонда Темпьетто работы Браманте (1502), на предполагаемом месте крестной смерти апостола Петра;
• Тринита-деи-Монти (1495), с фреской Даниеле да Вольтерра.

Из дворцов: Ватиканский — резиденция папы; Латеранский ; Квиринальский — резиденция папы, затем короля, ныне президента; палата депутатов помещается во дворце Монтечиторио (начат постройкой Бернини в 1650 году, окончен Карло Фонтаной и Маттиа ди Росси, прежде Курия Инноценциа — резиденция папского правительства); дворец Мадама — местопребывание сената; Капитолийский дворец — местопребывание городского управления; дворец папской канцелярии (построен при Сиксте IV); Венецианский дворец (XV в.) — местопребывание австрийского посла при папском престоле. Главные из дворцов римской знати — Барберини , Боргезе , Корсини , Киджи , Одескальки , Дориа-Памфили , Роспильози (знаменитая фреска — «Аврора», Гвидо Рени), Браски (теперь министерство внутренних дел), Каффарели (германское посольство), Фалькониери , Массимо алле колонне (1535, Бальдассаре Перуцци), Скиарра , Маттеи (Мадерны), Спада , новый дворец Пьомбино , с музеем Лудовизи.

Из вилл: Маттеи на Целийском холме; Медичи на холме Пинчо (построена в 1540 году Аннибале Липпи, принадлежала герцогам тосканским; в 1775 году отсюда вывезены во Флоренцию знаменитые статуи Венеры Медицейской, Ниобид и др.; теперь здесь помещается французская академия художеств); Боргезе у ворот дель Пополо , со знаменитой картинной галереей ; Альбани у ворот Салария , с музеем древностей; Торлония ; Дориа Памфили , у ворот Святого Панкратия , с огромным парком; Мадама (построена по проекту Рафаэля для кардинала Юлия Медичи, принадлежала Маргарите Пармской (отсюда название), герцогам Фарнезе и королям неаполитанским (теперь в запустении). Знаменитая прежде вилла Лудовизи , между воротами Салария и Пинчиана , разрушена.

В феврале 1798 года французские войска под командованием Бертье заняли Рим. Была провозглашена Римская республика . От папы Пия VI потребовали отречения от светской власти: он отказался, был вывезен из Рима и умер в изгнании. Французы вывозили из Рима произведения искусства. Вскоре, однако, движение австрийского генерала Мака на Рим заставило французов оставить город и 26 ноября 1798 года он был занят войсками неаполитанского короля Фердинанда I . После этого многие республиканцы были казнены. В сентябре 1799 года неаполитанцы оставили Рим, а в 1800 году новый папа Пий VII прибыл в него.

В 1808 году Наполеон I упразднил Папское государство, а Пий VII был вывезен из Рима. Затем в 1811 году провозгласил римским королём своего новорожденного сына . Эпоха французского владычества была ознаменована значительным развитием городского благоустройства: нищенство было искоренено, много было сделано для освещения улиц. Тогда же стали производить раскопки по строго научному плану.

После поражения Наполеона 2 мая 1814 года Пий VII вернулся в Рим и Папское государство было восстановлено.

Осенью 1848 года в Риме началась революция , папа Пий IX бежал в Гаэту и 6 февраля 1849 года вновь была провозглашена Римская республика. Но в июле 1849 года Рим был взят французскими войсками под командованием Ш. Удино и 14 июля Удино формально объявил о восстановлении в Риме папской власти. В апреле 1850 года папа вернулся в Рим. Французский гарнизон покинул Рим только в 1866 году.

20 сентября 1870 года войска Итальянского королевства заняли Рим и он стал столицей королевства.

20 сентября 1870 года войска Итальянского королевства взяли Рим штурмом . Внешний вид города стал сильно изменяться с объявлением в 1871 году Рима столицей Итальянского королевства. Переселение в Рим двора, высших государственных учреждений, министерств и суда вызвало оживлённую строительную деятельность. Для помещения новых учреждений перестраивались секуляризованные монастыри и воздвигались новые здания. Ввиду ожидавшегося притока населения спроектирована была новая часть города, на северо-восток от Тибра. Пустовавшие прежде Виминальский и Эсквилинский холм стали быстро покрываться новыми улицами. Строительная деятельность, поддерживаемая специальными банками, приняла лихорадочно-спекулятивный характер. В старинных, с узкими и кривыми улицами частях города прорубались широкие, удобные для движения улицы. Еврейский квартал был уничтожен в 1887 году. Тибр заключён в отвесных стенах; спроектированы широкие и красивые набережные. Построено несколько мостов и спроектирован ряд других, монументальных. У замка св. Ангела, на месте виллы Лудовизи, на Монте Тестаччио , на Прати ди С. Козимати, возникли новые, обширные кварталы. Эта строительная деятельность вызвала со стороны археологов обвинение в «разрушении Рима».

В 1922 году состоялся марш на Рим итальянских фашистов . В 1929 году в результате Латеранских соглашений на территории Рима было образовано государство Ватикан .

Во время Второй мировой войны Рим, в отличие от многих европейских городов, в целом избежал разрушений, однако подвергся немецкой оккупации в 1943-44 годах и был освобождён англо-американскими войсками 4 июня 1944 года.

• Рим, город // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.

Древний период

• H. Jordan, «Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum» (т. I, 1878; т. II, 1871);
• О. Gilbert, «Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum» (I, 1883; II, 1885; III, 1890);
• O. Richter, «Topographie der Stadt Rom» (в III т. Iw. Müller, «Handbuch der Klassischen Altertumswissenschaft», Нёрдлинген, 1889);
• Hülsen et Kiepert, «Formae urbis Romae antiquae accedit nomenclator topographicus» (Б., 1896).

•   На Викискладе есть медиафайлы по теме История Рима
• Сайт про историю Рима
• Модель античного Рима
• Пиранези . Le antichità Romane: Divisa In Quattro Tomi. Rom, 1784. (итал.)