History of Montenegro

The tools of the micro- Mousterian culture, found near Podgorica in the rocky canopy of Bioce in layers overlapping the horizon of volcanic ash, confirmed the hypothesis that the Campanian volcanic super-eruption, which occurred 39 thousand years ago in the area of ​​the Phlegrean fields on the Apennines and lasted hundreds of years, did not completely destroy Neanderthal population ^{[2] [3]} .

The most ancient inhabitants of Montenegro in ancient times were Illyrians . Later, Greek colonists founded cities on the coast, and the entire territory was gradually incorporated into the Roman (later Byzantine ) empire .

The territory of Montenegro was inhabited by Illyrian tribes: Ardiei , Pirouettes , plera , Enhelei , and partially autorites ^[4] .

The history of the Slavic tribes in Montenegro was reported in the middle of the 10th century by the Byzantine emperor Konstantin Bagryanorodny . According to his description, between Drach and Kotor there was the Dukla region, and to the north of it - Travunia . He also mentions three cities located in the interior of Dukli. Since ancient times, the cities of Kotor, Budva , Ulcinj and Skadar existed on the Dukli coast ^[5] . The population of coastal cities was mostly Romanesque. Christianity in Serbian lands was finally established in the second half of the 9th century ^[6] . According to the testimony of Konstantin Bagryanorodny, Serbian tribes in this part of the Balkans, including the Duklans, “became independent and independent” (from Byzantium) ^[7] .

Slavic tribes began to populate the Balkan Peninsula around the VI century BC. e. At the beginning of the 7th century, on the territory of the former Roman province of Prevalis, the Serbian ^{[8] [9]} state of Ducl was founded. Its center was located in the Roman city of Doklea (in the area of ​​the current capital of Montenegro, Podgorica ) . Ducla was initially formally part of the Byzantine Empire .

Serbian ^{[10] [11]} zupans , or leaders of the tribes of medieval Montenegro (Dukli) were under the control of Byzantium until the second half of the 10th century , when they recognized the power of their own prince , who remained a vassal of Byzantium until the 1040s .

During the reign in Dukla of Prince Vladimir in the X century, Dukla was conquered by Tsar Samuel . Vladimir was taken prisoner, and after marrying his royal daughter, he regained power in Dukla as the vassal of Samuel ^[12] .

Duklian state

In the XI century, Serbian lands fell under the power of Byzantium, and the center of the struggle for independence moved from the continental regions of Serbia to the coastal areas - Duklju, Travuniya, Zakhumye. In the 9th – 10th centuries, power in these areas was periodically in the hands of the Rupka zupans . From the 11th – 12th centuries, Duklya was also called Zeta ^[13] .

In 1035, an anti-Byzantine revolt led by Vojislav took place in Dukla, which ended in his defeat. Vojislav was taken to Constantinople, but after the escape he managed to take power in Dukla, Travunia and Zakhumye into his own hands. In 1040-1041, an uprising took place in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. In 1042, the Byzantine army plundered Dukla. In response, the troops of Vojislav inflicted a heavy defeat on the Byzantines. After that, Vojislav created an independent Duklian state . After Vojislav, power passed to his son Mikhail (c. 1050 - c. 1082), who included Raska in his state. In 1077, Pope Gregory VII, at the request of Michael, granted him the title of king ^[12] .

According to the Chronicles of the priest Duklianin, the Duklian state was divided into regions led by zupans (comes). At the gatherings with the participation of officials and aristocracy, important state issues were resolved. Konstantin Bodin (1082 - c. 1101) ^[14] placed in power in Raska the zupans Vukan and Mark. Under Konstantin Bodin, the Duklian state covered all Serbian lands, including Raska, Bosnia and Zahumye. The lordly bishopric was transformed into a metropolis. At the beginning of the XII century, internecine struggle intensified. After the death of Bodin or earlier, the state collapsed. The subsequent rulers of the Zetas were completely dependent on Byzantium or Raska ^[15] .

Since the XI century , the word Zeta (presumably from the Old Slavic word reaper ) has been increasingly used as the name of the state .

In the Nemanichi State

After the end of the Vojislavich dynasty Zeta was finally annexed to Raska during the reign of the great zupan Stefan Nemani (c. 1168–1196), who expelled the Zeta prince Michael. Together with Travunia, Zeta was transferred to the management of the heir to the throne Wukan ^[16] . In 1186, Stefan Nemanja conquered Kotor and annexed it to the Serbian state ^[17] .

The largest city on the coast in the XIII-XIV centuries was Kotor, which maintained active trade relations with the continental regions of Serbia. The population of Budva, Bar, Ulcinj was mainly engaged in shipping, as well as shipbuilding. These cities were self-governing, had their own statutes. The population of these cities was divided into the city nobility - the sovereign and ordinary townspeople - hell . Gradually, the role of people's assemblies in urban governance fell, and power passed into the hands of the patriciate, who became part of the Great Veche ^[18] .

In the spring of 1332, part of the zeta nobility took part in the rebellion on the side of young Stephen Dushan ^[19] .

Principality of Zeta

During the collapse of the Serbo-Greek kingdom, the Zeta- Balshichi rulers from 1366 no longer recognized the power of King Uros ^[20] . In 1385, Balsha II died in the battle with the Turks, his Zetan possessions went to George II Stratsimirovich . Vuk Brankovic took part in the Serbian-Bosnian coalition against the Turks, which was defeated in the Battle of Kosovo on June 15, 1389. By the end of the 14th century, most of the owners of the inland Zetas had become Turkish vassals. In 1396, George II Stratsimirovich gave Venice the port of St. Srd on Boyana , the cities of Skadar and Drivast ^[21] .

After the death of Balsha III in 1421, Zeta passed into the inheritance of the Serbian despot Stefan Lazarevich . He continued the war with the Venetians, but soon made peace and transferred to Venice the coastal community of Pashtrovichi and the cities of Kotor, Ulcinj, Skadar and Lesh ^[22] .

In 1439, the Zeta became a protectorate of Venice under the rule of the local feudal family of the Chernoyevichs and received the current name Montenegro ( Serbian. Crna Gora , or Italian. Montenegro - Black Mountains). Ivan I Chernoevich moved the capital to the city of Cetinje .

The inland areas of the Zetas gradually came under Turkish rule ^[23] . In 1455, the mountainous part of the Zeta west of the Morachi River, which during this period was already referred to as Montenegro , submitted to Venice. Relying on financial assistance from Venice, the ruler of the Upper Zeta Stefan Chernoevich resisted the Turks. Stephen's son, Ivan Chernoevich (1465-1490), made an attempt to occupy the Venetian coast, but soon went to reconciliation with Venice. After the Turks occupied the plain part of Montenegro, Ivan Chernoevich fled to Italy. Taking advantage of the power struggle that began in Turkey after the death of Sultan Mehmed II , Ivan Chernoyevich returned to his homeland and recognized himself as a vassal of Turkey. In the inaccessible terrain, Ivan founded the Cetinje Monastery , which became his residence. After his death, a struggle began between his sons. And in 1496, the independence of Montenegro was liquidated by the Turks. Many local feudal lords fled or were exterminated. At the same time, a layer of new feudal lords arose in the mountainous regions of the Zetas, who united into “brotherhoods” ^[24] .

By 1499, the Turks had conquered the possessions of Chernoyevich and subjugated the entire territory of Montenegro, with the exception of some cities of the Bay of Kotor , which remained under the control of the Venetians .

As a result of the Turkish conquest, almost all of the Yugoslav lands were swept by the increasing displacement and migration of the population. Due to those who fled from the Turks, the number of residents of Montenegro, Brda and Herzegovina increased ^[25] . After the Turkish conquest of Serbian lands, the rural population to a large extent consisted of Vlach pastoralists. In addition to Montenegro, pastoralists also prevailed in the nearby mountainous regions of Herzegovina and southern Serbia ^[26] . Over time, the Vlachs merged with the rest of paradise ^[27] .

In 1499, Montenegro became part of the Skadar sledzhak . In 1513, an independent sandjak was formed here under the control of the son of Ivan Chernoyevich - Skender-run , who converted to Islam. Instead of harach and other taxes, Montenegro introduced phyluria from the house, which usually spread to the Vlachs ^[28] . After the death of Skender Run in 1523, Montenegro lost its independence. There were no possessions of Turkish feudal lords - it was considered a Sultan Khas . Over time, the low-lying areas of the country - around Zabljak, Podgorica and others were under Turkish feudal lords. In mountainous areas, Turkish power remained weak. Probably, from the end of the 16th century, filuria was replaced by a common tribute (harach). Cattle-breeding communities in the mountainous regions of Montenegro, Brdy and Herzegovina enjoyed wide rights. Turkish feudal lords and officials were not there, and the power was in the hands of the Knights, the governor and the Serdars, who were led by the Kneszyn - territorial associations, which in turn were part of the Nakhis ^[29] . Territorial communities were divided into brotherhoods, and those in turn into families. The members of a large patriarchal family - friends - conducted a collective farm. Blood vengeance was widespread in Montenegro. Extreme shortages of land suitable for economic activities and other reasons led to armed clashes between communities. Knights, governors and serdars gradually separated from the rest of the peasants and often became actually small feudal lords ^[30] . The Serbian church, whose jurisdiction extended to Montenegro, was probably subordinated to the Ohrid Archbishopric in the 1520s. In 1557, the Serbian Pechersk Patriarchate was restored ^[31] .

Since the end of the XVI century, some tribal elders, kneses and governors in Montenegro established political relations with abroad ^[32] . Between 1597 and 1598, anti-Turkish uprisings took place in various regions of Montenegro, Herzegovina, and southern Serbia, calculated to help from the papacy, the ruling houses of Italy, and also from Spain. In Herzegovina, then there was a major uprising led by the Nikši voivode Grdan ^[33] . In 1604, in the battle of Leskopol, the Montenegrins managed to defeat the forces of the Skadar sandage run ^[34] .

The liberation struggle in the XVII-XVIII centuries

During the Turkish rule, Montenegro occupied a small part of modern territory. Compared with other Yugoslav lands in socio-economic terms, Montenegro was a backward region. There was little cultivated land in the mountains, Montenegrins were mainly engaged in cattle breeding, and usually suffered from hunger. They traded with nearby cities - Podgorica, Niksic, Spuzh, Skadar, but primarily with Kotor, through which the Montenegrins sold cattle and livestock products to the market, and bought bread, salt, and gunpowder ^[35] . On the basis of the princes, over time tribes (territorial-administrative units) were formed, which consisted of several fraternities. Tribes fought together. All adult members of the tribe gathered for a general meeting - a fence, at which the most important issues of the life of the Montenegrins were decided. But in fact, the power was in the hands of the elders - the governor and Knights, who actually held their posts by inheritance. The mediators in the relations of the Montenegrins with the Turkish authorities were the Spakhia or the main prince of all Montenegro, whose power was not great. The tribes were constantly at odds with each other. The policy of Islamization has led to the emergence of the Montenegrin mates . The only factor uniting all Montenegrins was the Orthodox Church, led by the Montenegrin Metropolitan (Bishop). Metropolitans stayed in the Cetin Monastery, which was located in the impregnable area of ​​the Katun Nakhii. The monastery had feudal-dependent peasants. In the 17th century, Turkish authorities and feudal lords increased pressure on the Montenegrins, trying to oblige them to pay harach regularly, introduce new taxes and deprive Montenegrins of their rights and privileges. In response, the Montenegrins, led by the metropolitans and individual governors and knesos, offered active resistance ^[36] . In the XVII century, in order to achieve obedience to the population of Montenegro, the Sultans systematically sent punitive expeditions here ^[37] .

The proximity of Montenegro to the Venetian possessions on the Adriatic in the 17th century contributed to the establishment of political ties with the Venetian Republic. Montenegrins raised anti-Turkish speech during the Kandy war between Turkey and Venice. In 1648, the Montenegrin fence decided to take Montenegro under the protectorate of Venice on certain conditions. But because of the military failures of the Venetians, this act did not receive a real embodiment. During the Holy League war, the Venetians expected to conduct military operations with the Turks at the hands of the local population. In order to prevent the uprising of the Montenegrins, to which they were persuaded by Venice, the Skadar Pasha opposed the Montenegrins and defeated them in the battle of Vrtelskaya (1685). In 1688, the Montenegrins continued the anti-Turkish struggle. After a successful battle for the Montenegrins near the village of Krusy, the Montenegrin Zbor led by Metropolitan Vissarion decided to go under the rule of Venice and ask the Venetians for military assistance. In 1691, Venice sent a military detachment to Cetinje, which, due to its small number, could not protect the Montenegrins from Turkish attacks. After the Turks defeated the Cetinje Monastery in 1692, the liberation struggle of the Montenegrins began to weaken ^[38] .

In the XVIII century, the liberation movement of the Montenegrins pursued the goal of creating their own statehood. Of great importance in this movement was the period of Metropolitan Danila Shchepchevich (1697-1735), which came from the Negushi tribe. An important condition for the successful struggle against the Turks was the desire of Danila to weaken tribal strife. In 1713, the Metropolitan established the all-Montenegrin “Court of Lord Danila”, which included 12 tribal elders. Danila decided to expel and exterminate the fellow travelers in Montenegro ^[38] . In the first half of the 18th century, political relations were established with Russia. After the Battle of Poltava (1709), the Russian Tsar Peter I in a new war with the Turks counted on the help of Montenegrins, Serbs, Wallachians and Moldavians. In a letter of 1711, the Russian government called on the peoples of the Ottoman Empire to revolt and military aid to Russia. After that, in the summer of 1711, the Montenegrin Chetniks began to speak out against the Turks. Together with the Herzegovans and Brdchan, they tried to capture the cities of Podgorica, Niksic, Spuzh and Gatsko . In 1712, the Turks, during a military expedition to Montenegro, were defeated in the battle of Tsarev Laz. In 1714, the Turks ravaged and burned most of the villages in the Katun Nakhi, as well as among the Negushi and Ozrinichi tribes . In 1715, Danila went to Russia, where he received a large sum of money, as well as church utensils and books. Peter I established a permanent cash subsidy for the Cetinje Monastery. During the Venetian-Turkish war of 1714-1718, the Montenegrin Zbor again decided to provide assistance to Venice. In 1717, the Montenegrins greatly helped the Venetians who fought in Dalmatia. Since that time, at the suggestion of the Venetians, the Montenegrins elected a governor to manage secular affairs. The governor and tribal elders began to receive money from Venice ^[39] .

Metropolitan Vasily (1750-1766) in foreign policy was fully oriented toward Russia's support, and inside the country he tried to weaken the influence of Venice. Vasily visited Russia three times, seeking cash benefits for the Montenegrins. In an effort to attract the attention of Russia to his country, Vasily published the History of the Black Mountain in Russia (1754). Vladyka Stepan the Small (1767-1773), posing as the Russian Tsar Peter III , strove for order in Montenegro and the end of tribal feuds. The murder of Stepan Maly did not allow him to complete the transformations he had undertaken. After the Montenegrins who arrived in Russia in 1777 did not receive financial support, the governor Jovan Radonic tried to get closer to Austria. The new Metropolitan Peter I Petrovich Negosh (1784-1830) arrived in St. Petersburg in 1785, but the Russian authorities suspected him of having ties with Austria and expelled him from the capital. At the end of the 18th century, Montenegro suffered from the attacks of the Skadar vizier Mahmoud Pasha Bushatli ^[40] , who burned down the Cetinje monastery. During the Russo-Turkish war , which began in 1787, the Montenegrins resisted the Turks in the area of ​​Podgorica and Spuzha.

On September 22, 1796, in the battle near the village of Krusy, the Montenegrins defeated the army of Mahmud Pasha, the head of the vizier was delivered to Cetinje. After this battle, Montenegro actually turned into an independent state ^[41] .

In 1798, Emperor Paul I established for Montenegro an annual subsidy for “nationwide needs and the establishment of useful institutions” of one thousand guilds. On October 18, 1798, tribal elders adopted the first all- Montenegrin legalist of Montenegro and Brda . This code provided for an annual tax of 60 dinars per house, and the death penalty for blood feud. In 1798, the highest state body of Montenegro was established - “The Government of the Montenegrin and Brd Court” ^[42] . In an effort to capture Boka Kotorska, Bishop Peter I took advantage of the fall of the Venetian Republic and in 1797 sent troops to Zupa and Budva. But Austria prevented the implementation of Peter's plan ^[43] .

First Half of the 19th Century

After the battle of Cruz, the Brd tribes of Belavavlich and Piper joined Montenegro. At the beginning of the 19th century, Montenegro was inhabited by 60 thousand inhabitants, its territory was approximately 1200 km². There were 116 villages in the country. Montenegrins' houses were small, built of rough stones, with a thatched roof. Until 1878, there were no cities in Montenegro. The capital of Cetinje in the 1830s consisted of a monastery and several dozen houses ^[44] . The population was predominantly occupied by semi-nomadic cattle breeding — raising mainly sheep and goats ^[45] . Agriculture was developed in Belopavlichi, Riekskaya and Trmnitsa nakhii. Peasants sowed potatoes and corn, as well as oats, barley, wheat, rye. Bread was brought from abroad. In Trmnitsa, they were also engaged in winemaking, and in Riek Nakhiya - fishing on Skadar Lake. Large land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the Cetin Metropolis ^[46] . A significant part of the land belonged to the community and tribal leaders. In addition to agriculture, the elders derived income from trade and usury. The Montenegrins still had friends, blood feuds and blood-kinship ties within the fraternities. Administratively, the country consisted of Nakhis, which were divided into tribes (associations of fraternities). Cultivated land and part of the pastures were the property of families. Most of the pastures, reservoirs and forests were collectively owned by villages, brotherhoods and tribes ^[47] .

In Montenegro, subsistence farming dominated in the first half of the 19th century. Montenegrins rarely engaged in crafts. Permanent trade was conducted in Rijeka Crnoevich. In Slivel and Virpazar, bazaars took place periodically. In the absence of the Montenegrin coin, Turkish and Austrian money were in use. There were no communication paths. Between Cetinje and Rieka Crnojevic’s horse-drawn road was laid in 1839-1840 ^[48] . At this time, trade relations with the cities of the Ottoman Empire revived: Podgorica, Niksic, Skadar ^[49] .

When in 1803 Vladyka went to rapprochement with France, Russia sent envoy M. Ivelich to Montenegro, who was supposed to demand Peter I to appear at the court of the Russian synod. In 1804, the Montenegrin government sent a response to the Russian Tsar, in which he said that the Metropolitan was not subject to the Russian synod. Later, the Montenegrins together with the Russians resisted the French troops at Cavtat and Dubrovnik. According to the Tilsit Peace (1807), Boka Kotorska was transferred to the French, and Montenegrin troops left it ^[43] . In a letter to the Russian Tsar of 1806, Peter I put forward the idea of ​​creating a Slavic-Serbian kingdom ^[50] with a capital in Dubrovnik. During the Russo-Turkish war of 1806-1812, the Montenegrins opposed the Turks. In 1813, Peter I, with the support of the British, occupied Boka Kotorska. On October 29 of the same year, the assembly in Kindness decided to unite Boka Kotorska with Montenegro. But the Vienna Congress (1815) handed over to Bock of Kotor Austria. In 1815, famine began in Montenegro, a group of Montenegrins emigrated to Russia. In the 1820s, many Montenegrins moved to Serbia. After the Montenegrins together with the Herzegovins resisted the troops of the Bosnian vizier in 1820, the Rovtsy and Moracha tribes joined Montenegro ^[51] .

The successor of Peter I was Vladyka Peter II Petrovich Negosh (1830-1851). On November 17, 1830, the assembly deprived Vuko Radonic of the title of governor, who was then expelled from Montenegro ^[51] . In 1831, Matei Vucichevich and Ivan Vukotich arrived in their homeland, who brought money from Russia and took part in the liquidation of the position of governor. In 1831, instead of the Government of the court, the Government Senate was established. Then a guard was created, endowed with police powers and the function of protecting the state border. Peter II succeeded in suppressing the erupted separatism in the Tzrmnitskaya Nakhiya and among the Pipera, Kuchi tribes ^[52] . As a result of the transformations carried out in the first half of the 19th century, the Montenegrin metropolitans turned into autocratic rulers ^[53] . After the Montenegrins tried to occupy Podgorica in 1831 and 1832, Turkish troops attacked the country, but were defeated at the battle of Martinique on April 22, 1832 ^[52] .

In 1833, the first elementary school in Montenegro was founded in Cetinj, and in 1834 a printing house. In 1833, Peter II came to St. Petersburg, where he received the rank of bishop. Russia continued to pay Montenegro an annual subsidy, the size of which, after the second trip of Peter II to Russia in 1837, was increased nine times ^[54] .

Second half of the 19th century.

In the 1850s, the Turkish government regarded Montenegro as part of the Ottoman Empire ^[55] . In 1851, the successor of Nyegos Danilo suppressed separatist activities in Trmnitsa and in the Piper tribe ^[53] . In 1852, Danilo proclaimed himself prince. Thus, Montenegro became a secular principality. The state began to support the Herzegovans in the liberation struggle against the Turks. Turkey was hostile to the proclamation of a new form of government in Montenegro. In December 1852, the Turkish army invaded the interior of Montenegro. The diplomatic intervention of Austria and Russia led to the end of the war ^[53] . In 1855, a new code of laws was adopted - the “ Obsti Zemalsky lawyer ”, which established the equality of citizens before the law ^[53] . May 1, 1858 between the Montenegrins and the Turks, the Battle of Grahov took place ^[55] . After Russian and French ships were sent to the shores of the Adriatic, Turkey made peace, losing Montenegro to Grahovo and some other territories ^[56] . After this battle, with the participation of France and Russia in April 1859, a border was established between Montenegro and Turkey. Some Albanian and Herzegovinian lands, including the Niksic zhupa, moved to Montenegro ^[55] . In 1861, severe hunger broke out in the country. Due to the lack of access to the sea and economic backwardness, economic dependence on the Austrian market intensified ^[53] .

In 1862, Montenegro supported the Herzegovinian uprising, in connection with which the Turks invaded Montenegro ^[55] . Montenegro was saved from complete defeat by the diplomatic intervention of France and Russia ^[57] . As a result of the peace agreement, fortifications were demolished, and Ottoman troops deployed in Montenegro (withdrawn by the end of 1866 under Russian pressure) ^[58] . After the assassination of Danila, Nicola (1860-1918) became the new prince, who believed that his dynasty should fulfill the mission of uniting Serbian lands. In a new war with the Turks in 1862, Montenegro was defeated. According to the Serbo-Montenegrin treaty of September 23, 1866, Prince Nicola, in the name of the unification of Serbia and Montenegro, agreed to renounce power in favor of the Obrenovic dynasty. After the assassination of the Serbian prince Michael in 1868, the alliance between the states broke up, and Nicola again began to claim a leading role in the unification of Serbian lands. In 1871, for the struggle for the liberation and unification of the Serbs in Cetinj, the "Druzhina" was created, whose members began preparations for an uprising in the Yugoslav lands, including Herzegovina and Bosnia ^[57] .

During the Herzegovina-Bosnian uprising (1875-1878) Montenegro supported the Herzegovina rebels. In June 1876, Montenegro, together with Serbia, declared war on Turkey. On July 16, in Herzegovina, in the battle of Vučy Dole, the Montenegrin-Herzegovina forces defeated the Turkish forces. On August 2, on the Albanian front, the 5,000th Montenegrin forces defeated the 40,000th Turkish army in the Battle of Fundin ^[59] . San Stefano Peace (1878) proclaimed the independence of Montenegro. By decision of the Berlin Congress (1878), the territory of Montenegro increased from 4,405 km² to 7 thousand km². Montenegro received the cities of Podgorica, Kolasin, Niksic, Zabljak, Ulcinj and Bar with a sea coast 70 km long ^[60] .

Montenegrins settled in the cities of Kolasin and Niksic, from where the Turkish population was evicted ^[61] . In the late 1870s, the first spontaneous demonstrations of workers began. In 1879, the Senate was replaced by the Council of State and the Supreme Court. The territory of the country was divided into ten Nakhii, which were divided into capitals ^[62] . In 1880, a secret oppositional political society was created, which sought to change the government and adopt a constitution. The authorities began the persecution of the opposition, many of whom were forced to emigrate ^[63] .

Danilo Shchepchevich Negosh established the hereditary church and political power of the Petrovich dynasty (Negoshi) , passing from uncle to nephew. When it was adopted the first written law of Montenegro - Stega .

In 1888, Nicholas I issued a code of laws, developed on the basis of the Austro-Hungarian .

Early 20th Century

Under the influence of Russia, a number of reforms were carried out that created a modern state. In 1901, the law on the state budget was issued ^[64] . In 1902, Nikola I Petrovich solemnly announced the beginning of state reforms ^[65] . After this, a new administrative-territorial division of Montenegro was introduced, replacing tribal division: the country was divided into regions and districts ^[65] . In 1905, a constitution was introduced, which was copied from the constitution of Serbia in 1869. All power remained in the hands of the prince, who appointed the government. The assembly was an advisory authority ^[66] . The capital Cetinje at the beginning of the 20th century turned into a city. Most industrial enterprises were small. In 1906, an Italian company built a tobacco factory in Podgorica ^[61] . In 1906, the coinage of the Montenegrin coin began - the perper , which was equated with the Austrian krone . In the years 1901-1912, five banks appeared. The largest financial operations were carried out by the Montenegrin Bank and the People's Bank of the Montenegrin Principality. In 1909, the Bar-Virpazar narrow-gauge railway was opened ^[67] . Montenegro became dependent on the capital of Italy and Austria-Hungary. Significant income to the country's budget was the annual subsidy, which was paid by the Russian government ^[62] .

After the assembly elections in October 1907, Serbia severed diplomatic relations with Montenegro. During the Bosnian crisis, relations between the two states were restored ^[68] . At the beginning of the XX century, Montenegro was a small agricultural state, in which about 190 people lived in 1909, of which only 15.57% were in cities ^[69] . Agriculture was primitive, crop failures and famine were frequent. For example, at the beginning of the 20th century, 1900, 1903, 1904, 1911 and 1913 were hungry ^[69] . In 1909, a conspiracy was discovered, the participants of which pursued the goal of overthrowing Prince Nikolai ^[68] . In the same year, under the leadership of the Russian engineer Bolotov, the marshes were drained near Lake Skadar ^[64] . Soon another conspiracy was discovered, the participants of which planned to overthrow Nicola and enthrone his eldest son Danila, freeing political prisoners ^[70] .

Kingdom of Montenegro

On August 15, 1910, Nicola proclaimed Montenegro the kingdom ^[71] . In the prewar years, Nikola maneuvered between Russia and Austria-Hungary, extorting subsidies from them ^[72] . After Nikolai’s trip to Russia in 1910, the Russian government doubled the annual subsidy of Montenegro ^[71] . Montenegro participated in two Balkan wars (1912-1913) against Turkey and Bulgaria ^[73] . In 1913, Nicola captured the Albanian Skadar ^[74] .

On August 5, 1914, Montenegro declared war on Austria-Hungary ^[72] . During the First World War, the army of Montenegro showed little activity ^[75] . After the defeat of the Serbian forces, Austria-Hungary launched an invasion of Montenegro. In early January 1916, Montenegrins surrendered to Lovcen , and soon to Cetinje. On January 14 (1), Nicola sent Franz Joseph a request to make peace. But the king never signed the act of surrender, and fled the country ^[76] .

October 9, 1912 Montenegro began military operations against the Ottoman Empire , thereby unleashing the First Balkan War .

From April 22 to May 5, 1913 Montenegro occupied the city of Shkodra , which caused a sea blockade on the part of Austria-Hungary , Germany , France , Italy and the UK , as it delayed peace negotiations with the Ottoman Empire . Only after the surrender of Shkodra could the London Peace Treaty be signed (1913) ( May 30, 1913 ), by which Montenegro left the southern part of Sanjak .

After a long occupation by Austria, Montenegro was liberated in the autumn of 1918 . Soon, elections to the Great People's Assembly of Montenegro were held here. Although part of the population preferred autonomy , the Great Assembly in Podgorica adopted a program of unconditional entry into the Yugoslav kingdom .

In Yugoslavia

On November 26, 1918, the “ Great National Assembly of the Serbian People of Montenegro ”, gathered in Podgorica, deposed the Montenegrin Petrovichi-Negosha dynasty, forbade King Nicola to return from France and decided to unite Montenegro with Serbia under the control of the Karageorgievich dynasty ^[77] . On December 1, Serbia and Montenegro merged with the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into a new state - the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes ^[77] . According to the order of April 22, 1922 ^[78] Montenegro within the borders of 1913 was allocated to a separate region of the country ^[79] .

Even after the creation of Yugoslavia, the Montenegrins, who remained loyal to the Petrovich dynasty (popularly referred to as the " Greens ") ousted from the throne in 1918, rose in 1919 against the Serbian army and its Montenegrin supporters (called " Belashi "). Despite its suppression, the rebellious tradition of the "greens" remained within the Montenegrin federalist party, and later in the communist movement .

From November 26, 1918 to October 3, 1929 Montenegro was part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (KSKhS) , from October 3, 1929 to July 12, 1941 - part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (KJ) .

Montenegro during World War II

During World War II, Montenegro was occupied by Italians ^[80] . Some eastern regions and Boka Kotorska were torn away from Montenegro ^[81] . In October 1941, Mussolini created the governorship of Montenegro ^[82] . In 1941, an anti-occupation struggle unfolded in Montenegro ^[83] . On July 13, a rebellion broke out in Montenegro with the participation of the Communists ^[84] .

During the Second World War, Italians (and after 1943 - Germans ) occupied the Kingdom of Montenegro (1941-1944) and attempted to establish the political regime of the satellite state here. From June 12, 1941 to 1943 Montenegro was declared a satellite kingdom of fascist Italy .

Since 1943, Montenegro was under German occupation ^[85] .

During the occupation, there was strong resistance from the Communists. In November 1943, with their leading participation, the Regional Anti-Fascist Council of People's Liberation was created, which in July 1944 turned into the Anti-Fascist Assembly, and in April 1945 - into the People's Assembly of Montenegro. In fact, from 1944 to 1945, Montenegro was under the control of partisans .

Montenegro in Titan Yugoslavia

From November 29, 1945 to January 31, 1946 Montenegro was part of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) .

According to the constitution of 1946, Montenegro became one of the six national republics within Yugoslavia ^[86] .

On December 31, 1946, the constitution of the People’s Republic of Montenegro was adopted ^[85] .

From 1947 to 1965, the volume of industrial production in the republic increased by 21.7 times ^[87] .

From July 7, 1963 to 1992, Montenegro was a Socialist Republic within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) . Moreover, in 1947-1990, the republic was invariably officially considered an underdeveloped territory and received subsidies and soft loans from the federal center (including from a special Federation Fund for lending to economically underdeveloped republics and regions) ^[88] .

On January 10, 1989, a demonstration took place in Titograd in front of the local parliament demanding the resignation of the government, which fulfilled this demand the very next day ^[89] .

On December 2, 1991, the EU decided to impose economic sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro ^[90] . On March 1, 1992, a referendum was held in Montenegro, at which 95.94% of the participants voted for entry into Yugoslavia. On April 27, 1992, the representatives of Montenegro and Serbia proclaimed the continuation of the legal status of the SFRY in the new state - the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ^[91] .

Course on Independence

From April 28, 1992 to February 4, 2003 Montenegro was a member of the Federation of Malaya Yugoslavia ( Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, FRY ) .

From February 4, 2003 to June 3, 2006 Montenegro was a member of the Confederate Union of Serbia and Montenegro (State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, State Social Security Service) .

Independent Montenegro (since 2006)

On February 4, 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ceased to exist. In its place, the state community of Serbia and Montenegro appeared. On May 21, 2006, in a referendum, 55.5% of the population of Montenegro voted for the independence of the republic. On June 3, the Montenegrin parliament declared independence. ^[92] On June 15, 2006, Serbia recognized the independence of Montenegro ^[93] . A few days later Montenegro became a member of the OSCE ^[94] and the UN ^[95] .

On September 10, 2006, the country hosted the first parliamentary elections after independence, in which the DCHR and the SDHR (ruling coalition) won - 41st place. ^[96] :

On April 6, 2008, the first presidential election after independence was held , in which Filip Vuyanovich won - 51.9% ( Democratic Party of Socialists ) ^[97] :

In December 2008, Montenegro applied for entry into the European Union ^[98] .

On December 19, 2009, a visa-free regime was introduced with the EU. It is valid for tourist trips to all countries of the Schengen area for up to 90 days, but a prerequisite is that Montenegrin travelers must have a biometric passport.

In September 2015, mass protests against the accession of Montenegro to NATO began in Podgorica . A tent camp was deployed on September 27, 2015 , and on October 17, the police dispersed it. During the crackdown, Montenegrin police detained 11 people, among whom were alleged leaders of the protest rally and MPs from the opposition Democratic Front. Sociological studies show differences in the opinions of Montenegrins regarding the integration of Montenegro into NATO. Thus, Serbian sociological agencies in Montenegro claim that more than 60% of the population of Montenegro oppose NATO membership. And according to research by state sociological agencies, this figure is slightly less than 50% ^[99] . Support for Montenegro’s entry into NATO among the population does not exceed 40% ^[100] . It can be asserted with confidence that the population of Montenegro is almost divided in half on the issue of joining the country ^[101] .

At the end of 2015, Montenegro was invited to start negotiations on joining the NATO alliance. ^[102] In May 2016, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of 28 NATO member countries signed a protocol on Montenegro's entry into the alliance, which gave the country observer status in the North Atlantic Council. ^[103] Montenegro’s accession plans to NATO, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina’s alleged NATO membership, have provoked a negative reaction from the Russian leadership. ^{[103] [104]}

On October 16, 2016, a vote was held in the framework of the elections to the Assembly , as a result of which four opposition parties collectively received 39 out of 81 seats in the Assembly; Most of the mandates were given to the Democratic Party of Socialists by Prime Minister Milo Djukanovic . The opposition began a boycott of parliament. ^[105] Authorities claimed an attempted coup d'etat was outlined for election day, to which Russia was allegedly involved. ^{[106] [107] [108]} The Russian Foreign Ministry refuted this and emphasized the fact that “not a single fact was brought against us on any of these unfounded charges.” ^[109]

On June 5, 2017, the official ceremony of accession of Montenegro to NATO was held in the building of the US State Department in Washington.

• List of rulers of Montenegro
• History of post and stamps of Montenegro

• Bromley, Yu. V. et al. History of Yugoslavia . -M .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - T. I. - S. 136.
• Repl. ed. Nikiforov, K.V. Yugoslavia in the 20th century. - M .: Indrik, 2011 .-- S. 888.
• Vaclick I. Ya. Montenegrin reigning dynasties . - SPb. : Type of. V.V. Komarova, 1889 .-- 26 p.
• Rovinsky P. A. Montenegro in its past and present: In 3 vols. - St. Petersburg. : Printing House of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1888. - T. 1. - 936 p.

• Materials on the history of Montenegro On the Montenegrina website (Serb.)
•   Wikimedia Commons: Atlas: History of Montenegro