Runes

Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon run , Old Icelandic runar and Old German runa are associated with the Germanic root ru and Gothic runa , meaning "secret", as well as Old German runen ( modern raunen ), meaning "mysteriously whisper". This name, apparently, is due to the fact that the ancient Germans attributed to the runes some mystical properties ^{[5] [6] [7]} .

The main distinguishing feature of the runic alphabet is the order of letters; it is conditionally called " futark" (" fuþark ") - according to the first six letters ^{[9] [10]} . Such an alphabetical order was not found in any other writing ^[5] .

The alphabet was divided into three genera ( Isl. Ættir "ettir", Norwegian Ætt "att"); each has 8 runes. The first etter included the runes f , u , þ , a , r , k , g , w . In the second - h , n , i , j , é ( ih-wh ), p , R ( z ), s . The third etter included the runes t , b , e , m , l , ŋ , d , o ^{[3] [5] [6]} .

Each rune had its own name. The original names of the runes were not preserved, but there are reconstructions, for example:

The direction of the letter is from left to right, but in early inscriptions bustrofedon is found ^[5] . So, on the spear from Kovel, the inscription is read from right to left, and the runes themselves are also turned in the opposite direction, like the North Etruscan and Greek letters in the early monuments of ancient Greek writing. Words were separated using a period, colon or cross ^[11] .

On the runestones there are various symbols: swastika shapes, four-segment symbols, triquetra , triskelions , pentagrams , spirals . The characters at the bratheats were much more diverse: they also featured ornaments of three or more points , triangles , circles , T-shaped, S-shaped, I-shaped symbols, zigzags ^[12] .

In total, about 5,000 runic inscriptions were found ^[9] , of which 3,000 were found in Sweden ^{[13] [14]} .

The most ancient monuments of runic writing were found in Denmark ^{[5] [15]} ; In total, about 500 runic inscriptions were found there.

About 600 runic inscriptions found in Norway ; about 140 - in the British Isles ; about 60 - in Greenland ; about 70 - in Iceland .

Several inscriptions were found in Russia , Latvia , Ukraine , Germany and Austria .

Runic inscriptions were also found in France , Greece , Romania , Turkey and the Netherlands ^[6] .

A large collection of runestones is in the collection of Uppsala University . In modern Stockholm , in the Gamlastan district, at the corner of the intersection of Kekbrinken and Pristgotan streets, an ancient stone with well-preserved runic scripts is mounted in the basement of a residential building.

One of the earliest runic inscriptions is the inscription on the bone , preserved in a swamp on the Danish island of Funen . The inscription translates as harja ("name" or "epithet") and dates from the 2nd half of the 2nd century . Until recently, it was believed that runic writing appeared in the III century , but recent finds indicate that runes were used as early as the 1st century AD. e. ^[sixteen]

A large number of runic inscriptions are carved on stones; Bratheats are also known, which are round gold plates, originally imitating Roman medallions ^[9] .

Several runic manuscripts are known: Codex Runicus , Fasti Danici , Cotton Domitian , Codex Salisburgensis 140 ^[5] . Runic inscriptions in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople are very interesting, as well as a marble lion from the Athenian port of Piraeus , whose shoulder is covered with runic inscriptions. In 1687, the sculpture was brought to Venice as a trophy ^[9] . In Kensington in the state of Minnesota (USA) in 1898 a runestone was found, but the question of its authenticity remains open.

Runic inscriptions were carved or carved on metal, wood, stone - among the ancient Germans, the art of woodcarving was at a high level. The runic inscriptions were of the most diverse content: there were various magical inscriptions and appeals to the gods, but, for the most part, memorial inscriptions were written in runes ^[5] . A vivid example of this is the runic stone from Ryok , praising King Tjordik , who lived in the VI century ^[9] , but the first lines of this inscription read: “These runes speak of Vemud. Varin folded them in honor of the fallen son ”, which can speak of the memorial value of the stone ^[17] .

An obituary is another runestone from Norway. He says: "Engle erected this stone in memory of his son Torald, who died in Vitaholm, between Ustaholm and Gardar."

Other runic monuments praised the prowess of the Vikings who returned from travel. Runic stones, such as the stone from Hillerschö ( Sweden ), speak about the exclusive rights of women among the Germans - the right of a woman to own property. Runes carved the names of the owners of weapons, artists. But known runic inscriptions of a domestic nature ^[9] . A large number of runic inscriptions are represented by bratheats ; Runic calendars are also known.

Greek-Latin version

On the problem of the origin of runes, there are a large number of hypotheses. The shape of the runes, elongated and prickly, prompted Isaac Taylor to the idea that the runes came from the Greek alphabet used in the VI century. BC e. on the Black Sea . Taylor attributed the role of the creators to the Goths , who supposedly inhabited the Northern Black Sea region at that time, although, in fact, the Goths migrated there 900 years later. A number of other scholars see the ancestor of runic writing in Greek cursive writing of the last centuries BC ^[5] .

Ludwig Franz Adalbert Wimmer put forward the theory of the origin of runes from the Latin script of the late II century. n e. Sigurd Agrell also adheres to the Latin theory, believing that the date of the origin of the runes is the 1st century . According to the assumption of Otto von Friesen , the runes were invented by the Goths in the II - III centuries. n e. based on the Greek and Latin alphabets.

Bradsdorf believed that the runes came from Gothic writing . This version is rejected by other researchers, since the most ancient runic inscriptions reliably date no later than the III century, while Gothic writing was invented only in the IV century ^[5] .

North Etruscan Version

The most popular theory is the origin of runic writing from one of the North Etruscan alphabets ^[18] , which was proposed in 1928 by the runologist Karl Marstrander ^{[19] [20]} .

This version is supported by most scientists. There is a theory about the mixed origin of runes from the North Etruscan and Ogamic alphabets (it was proposed by Hammerström), and also, according to Feist, besides these two scripts, the Latin could influence the runes.

Near-Asian version

The Lydian alphabet has a number of letters identical to the runes (in graphics, but not in phonetics ). This alphabet, apparently, arose from the Phoenician alphabet in parallel with the Greek. This writing is dying in the III century. BC e., and at about the same time, runes appear in Europe, having absorbed a number of Latin letters. Some runes have exact analogues in other Near Asian alphabets - for example, in the South Arabian writing of the rune: Gebo , Berkana , Ing (in the Scandinavian version).

Unconventional versions

In the 1930s and 1940s, the Urrunen theory was developed in Germany , according to which the runes come from certain praruns, from which the Northern Semitic alphabet , and therefore all the alphabetic scripts of the world, also originated. This theory was developed solely for the purpose of "Germanizing" the alphabet and is not credible. It is still not known for what purpose the runes were created: whether it was signs for fortune telling , or if the runes were originally conceived as writing ^{[3] [5] [6]} .

Sigurd Agrell , a Swedish professor at Lund University , put forward an esoteric theory in 1932 , according to which the rune f was the last, and not the first, in the runic alphabet. He believed that by arranging the runes in this order, one could understand the secret meaning of the runic code ^[21] . This theory was not accepted in the scientific world, but it found a number of followers, such as Thomas Karlsson . He published the first monographs on the theory of futark after the works of Agrell ^[22] . Another famous follower of the Futar theory is the occultist Kenneth Meadows ^{[23] [24] [25]} .

Mythological version

According to Norse mythology , the runes were revealed to Odin when, piercing himself with a spear, he hung on the World Tree for nine days and nights without food or drink. Then, having quenched his thirst with sacred (shamanistic) honey from his grandfather Bölthorn , he heard the runes and traced the first of them with a spear on the Tree with his own blood.

Early, All-German, or Praskandinavian Runes

There were several different types of runes; the earliest is the Praskandinavian version used in the common German language. It was used in the period from I to VIII century BC. e. (in the history of the Germanic peoples, this is the Roman Iron Age and the Germanic Iron Age ), and it is sometimes called the “senior futark”, or “older” runes ^[3] . "Senior" runes only 24; they are found on weapons, jewelry and commemorative stelae . It was the “older” runes that were used later (until the 13th century) for magical and sacred purposes. The “younger” runes (IX – XIII centuries) were used to create memorial inscriptions and did not have sacred meaning.

In total, about 150 objects (weapons details, amulets, tombstones) with early runic inscriptions of the 3rd – 8th centuries are known ^[7] . Most inscriptions consist of a single word (usually a name), which in addition to the magical use of runes makes it impossible to fully read about a third of the inscriptions. The language of the oldest runic inscriptions is more archaic than the Gothic , the earliest Germanic language recorded in other written monuments ^[26] .

Gothic runes

Gothic runes are also distinguished, which are an early variety of the all-German ones. They were used in Eastern Europe in the I - IV centuries BC. e.

Typically, Gothic runic inscriptions include the inscription on the tip of the spear from Kovel ( Ukraine ), on the gold ring from Pietroassa ( Romania ), as well as the inscription on the tip of the spear from Evre Stabu ( Norway ). The inscription reads: raunijaz - that is, the “experiencer”. It is considered the earliest runic inscription ^[19] .

Anglo-Saxon Runes

In connection with the relocation of a number of Germanic tribes to the British Isles ( Angles , Saxons , Jutes ), phonetic changes occurred in their language; a number of new vowel sounds were added, as a result of which the Germanic runic alphabet became unusable. So the Anglo-Saxon runic alphabet came about. By the 7th century , two new runes were added: Ac , which signified the long sound [ɑ:], and Æsc , which signified the sound [æ]. Later Yr runes were added for [y]; Ior for diphthong [io]; Ear for diphthong [ea]; Cweorþ for [q]; Calk for [k]; Stan for sound [st] and Gar for heavy [g]. Lists of the Anglo-Saxon runic alphabet are preserved in the manuscripts “ Codex Salisburgensis, 140 ”, “ Cotton Domitian (Codex Cotton) ”, as well as on the Scramasax (short sword) found in the Thames . Several old runes changed their phonetic meaning: a began to denote the sound [o]; z - [x]. The names of the old runes have been greatly changed, or rather translated into Anglo-Saxon . They became: Feoh , Ur , Þorn , Or , Rad , Cen , Gyfu , Wen , Hagl , Nyd , Is , Ger , Ih , Peorþ , Eohlx , Sigel , Tir , Beorc , Eh , Man , Lagu , Ing , Oeþel , Dæg .

New runes were translated as follows: Ac - "oak"; Æsc - “ash”; Yr - “bow (weapon)”; Ior - “serpent”; Ear - “earth”; Calc - "chalice"; Stan - “stone”; Gar is the spear. The significance of the Cweorþ rune is unknown ^{[5] [11]} .

Markomanic runes

The De Inventione Litterarum treatise, which has been preserved in manuscripts of the 8th and 9th centuries, found mainly in the Carolingian Empire , mentions a curious mixture of German and Anglo-Saxon runes, which was called "Markomanian runes" , although it has nothing to do with the Marcomances themselves probably was created to make the runes completely equivalent to the Latin alphabet ^[27] .

Northern or Scandinavian runes

By the beginning of the IX century in the countries of Scandinavia, the all-German runic alphabet went the other way. Some changes also took place in the Old Norse language, the sound sequence of the language was enriched, so the common German runes also began to insufficiently convey the sound composition of the language, but, unlike the Anglo-Saxon runes, the number of characters in the Scandinavian runes did not increase, but decreased. Runes g , w , ih-wh , p , z ŋ , d , o were excluded. From the Anglo-Saxon runic alphabet, the rune Yr was added. Thus, the alphabet began to consist of sixteen runic characters. The names of the runes have also changed a lot: Fe , Ur , Þurs , Åss , Reið , Kaun , Hagall , Nauð , Iss , Ar , Sol , Tyr , Bjarkan , Maðr , Løgr . As for the remaining Praskandinavian runes, each of them began to denote several similar sounds: the rune Ur began to denote the sounds [u], [o], [ø], [w]; þurs - [þ], [ð]; Åss - [å], [ą], [æ]; Kaun - [k], [g], [ŋ]; Iss - [i], [e], [ø], [y]; Ar - [a], [æ], [e], [ø]; Tyr - [t], [d], [nd]; Bjarkan - [p], [b], [mb]. Usually distinguish two types of Scandinavian runes - Danish and Swedish-Norwegian ^[3] . Danish runes have undergone the least change in appearance; they were used in the 9th- 11th centuries. The Swedish-Norwegian runes had a tendency to graphically minimize the sign. So, runes s and y were reduced to one line. Swedish-Norwegian runes were used in the 9th- 10th centuries. Later, the Norwegian version began to stand out; in outline he came close to Danish. The Scandinavian runes, as well as all subsequent ones, are also called "younger" runes ^[3] .

Helsing Runes

The tendency to reduce the spelling of signs in the Swedish-Norwegian runes has manifested itself in the Helsing runes . Although these runes were used in Helsingland ( Sweden ), they were probably invented in the vicinity of Lake Mälaren . The inscriptions made by the Helsing runes date back to the 11th century ^[5] .

Manx Runes

The downward trend continued in the Norwegian runes. So, in the XI- XII centuries. on the Isle of Man , a very curious version of the Norwegian runes, called the Manx runes, was used . Its distinctive feature is the absence of the 16th rune. The inscriptions made by this letter are divided into two types: where the fourth rune denoted the sound [ą] and where it denoted [o] ^[5] .

Punctured Runes

Punctured runes arose in the 11th century in Denmark and Norway. They were created with the aim of perfecting the Scandinavian runes, since, due to the large number of phonetic meanings of each rune, they could not accurately convey what was written. Therefore, signs were added for c , d , g , o , p , v , ð , æ , ø , z . The stimulus for the expansion of the alphabet was the experience of the Anglo-Saxon runes. The punctured runes owe their name to the points that were added to the runes during the formation of ð from þ ; p of b ; y ^{[3] [5]} .

Icelandic runes

Icelandic runes can be considered a developed version of punctured runes. They were used in Iceland in the XII - XIV centuries. In the late epoch, the shapes of individual runes began to change dramatically in Icelandic runes. So, rune y took shape   , p -   , and q is   . There is a tendency to replace small dashes and dots with circles in runes d (   ), e (   ) “Shortened forms of runes” appeared ( Viktigste islandske særformer ): runes   ( d )   ( e )   ( k )   ( q )   ( s )   ( x )   ( y )   ( z )   ( ö ) ^{[28] [29] [30] [31]} .

Greenland Runes

Greenland runes also evolved from punctate; they were used at about the same time as Icelandic. In total, about 60 runic inscriptions were found in Greenland , 35 of them in the East Settlement , 20 in the Western Settlement . Greenland's oldest runic inscription dates back to the 14th century and was found in Narsaq , northwest of Julianehob ^{[32] [33]} .

Dalecarly or Dale Runes

Dalekarliysky , or Dalsky runes were used in the province of Dalarna ( Sweden ) from the 15th to the 19th centuries . According to their styles, they came very close to the Latin alphabet ; purely Latin forms of letters ( Ä , Ö , Å , G ) appeared. This option was the last used as a script and was finally supplanted by the Latin alphabet ^{[10] [13] [34]} .

Influence on other scripts

Bishop Wulfila created the Gothic script based on the Greek alphabetical line using Latin and runic scripts. The Gothic alphabet inherited the names of the letters from the runic script, although they were slightly modified: ahsa , bairkan , giba , dags , aihvus , quairtha , iuja , hagl , thiuth , eis , kusma , lagus , manna , nauths , jer , urus , pairthra , raida , sauil , teiws , winja , faihu , iggwis , hwair , othal . Gothic letters urus , othal can be built to runic writing.

Additional letters in the Old English and Icelandic alphabets based on the Latin alphabet ^[3] also go back to runic writing: Þ (thorn) and Ƿ (wynn; only in Old English).

There are several simple ways to encrypt runic characters. The so-called "knitted runes" were common, in which several runes were combined on one line. Another type of runic cryptography is the principle where, instead of the rune itself, the number of Ottir, which included the rune, and the serial number of the rune inside Ottir, were displayed. This system was used exclusively in the Scandinavian runes ^{[5] [11]} . Ettirov’s number was reversed. So, 1 Etter in cryptography was designated as 3; 3 - as 1, and 2 - as 2. On a stone from Ryok there are a large number of cryptography varieties, the peculiarity of which is that in 3 (in cryptography - 1) Etter there are runes not t , b , m , l , y , and the runes t , b , l , m , k . There were several ways to reflect this principle. In kvistrunir ( "branching runes" ), dashes extend from the long line: their number on the left denoted the number of Ottir, on the right - the runes. Tjaldrunir ( “tent runes” , or “cross runes” ) differs from kvistrunir in that one sign denotes two sounds: dashes go from the cross, from the top to the left is the number of Ettira, from above to the right is the number of the rune; bottom right is the number of the Etrir of the second rune, bottom left is its number inside the Ettir ^[5] . Both of these types of cryptography are represented on stone from Ryok . Another type of such cryptography, represented on a stone from Ryok, is an encryption, where the number of the Ottir is denoted by the German runes o , and the number of the runes by the Swedish-Norwegian s . On the stone is written " oossoosss ", which means " ni ". Also on this stone is a type of cryptography, where the number of the Etter is designated by the all-German rune ih-wh , turned in the opposite direction, and the number of the rune - by the usual all-German rune ih-wh . In some other cases (the inscription from Volsta ), the number of the Ettir was denoted by the Swedish-Norwegian runes y , and the number of the rune, as in the "branching runes", by the number of dashes on the right side of the main line.

Rich in unique types of runic cryptography of Bergen . In Bergen, two unique wooden planks with varieties of “branching runes” were found: on one, instead of the middle line, was an image of fish, on the other plaque, the numbers of Ettira and the runes were indicated by the lines of the beard of a male head. Also in Bergen, such a rune encryption system was used, where the rune f was designated as, in fact, f ; u is like ff ; þ - fff ; o was designated, in fact, by the rune o ; r is oo ; k - ooo , etc. rune y was not encrypted. The Codex Salisburgensis 140 manuscript contains a system for replacing vowels with dots: a - one; e - two; i - three; o - four; u by five. The type of cryptography is also known, which consists in the reverse spelling of individual runes, adding extra dashes to the runes and removing the necessary ones. It is represented by an inscription on a stone from Tervika ^[11] .

There were also runic calendars, varieties of the "perpetual calendar." In Denmark they were called Rimstock (from rim “calendar”, and stok “stick”), in Norway they were called protists (from prim “golden number”). They most often looked like sticks or sticks from a few inches to 5 feet long. These calendars were used in Scandinavia, and may have their roots in the distant past, but the earliest of those found date back to the XIV century ^[5] . Of interest to science is Ole Worm ’s manuscript Computus Runicus , a copy of the manuscript of 1328 , in which the runic calendar was completely recorded. The numbers from April 14 to October 13 ( Nottleysa “nightless days”, summer according to the Scandinavian calendar) were indicated on one side, the numbers from October 14 to April 13 ( Skammdegi “short days”, winter according to the Scandinavian calendar) . To designate the days in the runic calendars, a repeating order of seven runes was originally used. Nineteen “golden numbers” were also noted for finding the full moon ^[5] . Each of the nineteen numbers was marked with a rune, the numerical value was determined alphabetically, and for the three missing numbers additional runes were created: Arlaug (   ) denoted 17; Tvimaður (   ) denoted 18; Belgþor (   ) designated 19. Holidays were designated with special signs. These signs were determined mainly by signs associated with a particular holiday. So, June 9, St. Columbus was designated by the image of salmon , since, according to the omen, on this day spawning began. April 14, the first day of the calendar summer, was indicated by the image of a flowering bush. November 11, St. Martin , was designated by the image of a goose, since St. Martin, when he was elected bishop , got scared and hid among the geese. In a later era, days began to be denoted by simple dashes, and nineteen “golden numbers” by Arabic numerals or other numerical signs ^[11] .

Main articles: Old German , Gothic , Old English , Old Norse , Old Swedish , Swedish

The most ancient runic inscriptions were written in the Old German language , however, they cannot fully reflect the general German language state: early inscriptions found in various places have no linguistic features and do not provide information on the development of the language in a particular region. Later runic inscriptions are written in Anglo-Saxon (Anglo-Saxon runes), Old Norse (Scandinavian runes) languages. The most recent runic inscriptions made by the Dalekarli runes are written in Swedish . In general, the written runes do not always correspond to pronunciation due to the large number of abbreviations at the end of the word and the lack of words in the early runic inscriptions. In connection with these factors, many runic inscriptions allow a different interpretation ^[1] .

Magical and divinatory meanings

Julius Caesar also reported in the middle of the 1st century. BC e. about the German custom of fortunetelling fortunetelling ^[35] . Tacitus spoke in more detail about him:

They cut a branch cut from a fruit tree into dies and, having applied special signs on them, then pour it out, as necessary, onto a snow-white cloth. After that, if fortune-telling is carried out for public purposes, the priest of the tribe, if in private, the head of the family, having offered prayers to the gods and fixed his gaze on the sky, takes out one die three times and interprets the predicted one in accordance with the signs scraped out on them ^[36] .

The ancient Germans attributed the magical properties to the runes: for example, in Elder Edda you can find references to some mystical properties of runes as amulets from various dangers, deception, as healing symbols ^[37] .

One of the earliest runic monuments mentioning the magical meanings of runes is the manuscript Computus Runicus by Danish scientist and physician Ole Worm , a copy of the manuscript of 1328 .

In Occultism

The modern divinatory meaning of the runes introduced in the 19th — 20th centuries. German rune researcher and occultist Guido von Liszt , who, among other things, created the runic "alphabet" specifically for fortune telling - the "Armanian futark". This alphabet was based on the Scandinavian runes; two "signs" were added, the names of the runes were changed. The following are their names in alphabetical order: Fa , Ur , Thorr , Os , Rit , Ka , Hagal , Nauth , Is , Ar , Sol , Tyr , Bar , Laf , Man , Yr , Ef , Fyfros .

Today, runes are used exclusively as mystical symbols for fortune telling, "enchanting" objects, as well as in tattoos and charms . For fortune telling, a set of 24 ^[38] or 25 ^[39] runes is used. As a rule, runes are applied to stones ^[39] , however fortunetellers often use runes made of wood, bone, and even salt dough ^[38] .

Siegfried Kummer believed that the runes serve as a bridge connecting man with the ancient "Aryan" gods ^[40] . He believed that each rune corresponds to the position of the human body. He also considered it necessary to sing various combinations of runes. Subsequently, under the influence of this, Adolf Hitler used runes in Nazi symbols ^[41] . Kummer wrote:

Runic magic allows you to control various energy flows coming from five cosmic spheres. For this, it is necessary to create the appropriate conditions for your physical body - that is, to take the correct runic pose - and set your mind on the perception of energy flows. This is done with the help of special runic sounds that the Germans called “gald” ( galdr - “spell”, “magic song”).

Runes in Nazi Symbols

In the symbolism of SS more than once runic signs are found. So, the symbol of SS was two white runes s on a black background. Moreover, runes are found more than once on the symbols of various SS divisions: rune o on the emblem of the 7th volunteer mountain division “Prince Eugen” , 23rd mountain division “Kama” and 23rd volunteer tank-grenadier division “Nederland” ; rune s is also found on the symbols of the 12th tank division "Hitler Youth" ; rune t is depicted on the emblem of the 32nd volunteer grenadier division “January 30” ; rune n - on the emblem of the 6th mountain division "Nord" .

Rune s was a symbol of the Jungfolk organization, a division of the Hitler Youth .

Two runes - s and rune n are depicted on the SS badge - The Dead Head Ring .

In total, according to Himmler’s decree, 14 runes of the senior futark were used in SS symbols, with the help of which the main stages of career advancement and personal characteristics of members of the organization were identified ^{[42] [43]} . In SS rituals, various items decorated with runes were used, including rings, Yule lamps , daggers, etc.

Runes in Fiction

J.R. R. Tolkien in his books described alphabets created by him specially for the languages ​​of the peoples of Middle - earth . Among them there are two scripts created on the basis of runic writing. One of these scripts - “Moon Runes” ( Engl. Moon letters ) - is a slightly altered all-German runic alphabet with which Tolkien allegedly “translated” authentic texts of Middle-earth; the other writing of Middle-earth - kirt ( cirth ) - also represents in appearance the runes of the common German runic alphabet, but with different meanings; their appearance is ordered according to the phonetic characteristics of sounds ^{[44] [45] [46] [47] [48]} .

Starting with version 3.0, runic characters in Unicode were assigned separate positions (16A0-16F8) ^{[49] [50]} .

In total, 89 runic characters are entered in Unicode , including various forms of the same character, depending on the runic alphabet that it entered, also three word-separating runic characters are entered in Unicode : dot (16EB), colon (16EC) and cross (16ED) as well as three additional characters to indicate “golden numbers”: arlaug (16EE), tvimaður (16EF) and belgþor (16F0).

Runes support free Unicode fonts: Junicode , Free Mono and Caslon Roman ; Shareware: Code2000 , Everson Mono, and TITUS Cyberbit Basic .

Main articles: Kek-Turkic runes , Hungarian runes , Bulgarian runes

In connection with the external resemblance, the term "runes" is also called a number of other scripts, with runes in no way connected. This is, first of all, the Kek-Turkic runes , the script used in the 6th - 7th centuries in Siberia , the inscriptions made of which were first discovered in the 18th century . It was deciphered by the Danish linguist Wilhelm Thomsen at the end of the 19th century and, apparently, comes from a variation of the Pahlavi script ^[51] .

Runes are also called Bulgarian runic script and ancient Hungarian writing . Hungarian runes resemble Turkic runes , however, the relationship of these two scripts has not been proven ^{[5] [51]} .

Slavic runes

In the Moscow State Historical Museum , in the Polovtsian courtyard, there is a quadrangular relief, figures are carved on three sides, and an inscription made in non-Cyrillic on the back. The writing resembles the Bulgarian runes from Mfatlar (Romania). In the XIX-XX centuries, scientists seriously engaged in this task ^[5] .

On the territory of Russia , Belarus ^[52] , Ukraine and Latvia , a number of inscriptions were made by the well-known German runes. However, in Staraya Ladoga and Novgorod , two unread letters were found made by unknown scripts, presumably runic, and completely dissimilar to each other. The Chernorizets Khrabr in his treatise "On Letters" mentions the use by the Slavic pagans of "devils and cuts" for fortune telling ^[53] , but claims the lack of written language among the Slavs. The Slavic runes are also identified with the writing of the Veles Book , recognized by the scientific community as a fake of the 19th-20th centuries ^[54] . In the 18th century, the discovery of the “Venedian runes” on the figures from the temple of Retra was declared , but these figures, like the Veles book, were found to be fake.

• Vikings
• Roman Iron Age in the history of the Germans
• Futark
• Ancient Turkic runic script
• Hungarian runes
• Bulgarian runes
• Runestones in Jelling
• Icelandic magic signs
• Kirt

in Russian

• Runes // Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary : in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
• Blum R. X. Book of runes. - Kiev: Sofia, 2010. - ISBN 978-5-399-00032-9 , ISBN 978-5-91250-810-3.
• Weber E. Runic art: Trans. with him. Skopintseva E. M. - St. Petersburg: Publishing Group "Eurasia", 2002. - 160 p. ISBN 5–8071–0114–6.
• Kolesov E., Torsten A. Runes. Futhark classic and armanian. - Penza: The Golden Ratio, 2008. - ISBN 978-5-91078-045-7.
• Korablev L. Runic alphabet. - M., 2015, independent publication. - 592 p. - ISBN 978-5-9907446-0-8.
• Carroll R. T. Runes // Encyclopedia of Delusions: a collection of incredible facts, amazing discoveries and dangerous beliefs . - M .: Williams Publishing House, 2005. - 672 p. - ISBN 5-8459-0830-2 , ISBN 0-471-27242-6 .
• Macaev, E. A. The language of the most ancient runic inscriptions. - M .: URSS editorial , 2002 .-- 156 p. - ISBN 5-354-00030-0 .
• Melnikova E.A. Scandinavian runic inscriptions. - M .: Oriental literature , 2001. - ISBN 5-02-018082-3 .
• Thorsson E. . Runic teaching. - M .: Sofia, Helios, 2002 .-- 320 p. - ISBN 5-344-00080-4 .
• Pennik N. Magic alphabets. - Per. M. Kaminsky. - Kiev: Sofia, 1996 .-- 320 p. - ISBN 5-220-00005-5 .
• Platov A.V. Runic Art: practice. Training course. - M .: Sam Polygraphist LLC, 2012. - 352 p. - ISBN 978-5-905948-01-5 .
• Platov A.V. Runes: Two Millennia of Magical Tradition. - M .: Veche, 2011 .-- 448 p. - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-9533-6162-0 .

in other languages

• Blum, Ralph H. The Book of Runes. - St. Martin's, 1993 .-- 160 pages - ISBN 0312108192 .
• B. Odenstedt. On the Origin and Early History of the Runic Script. - Coronet Books Inc, 1990. - 182 p. - ISBN 978-9185352203 .
• Richard L. Morris. Runic and Mediterranean Epigraphy. - Coronet Books Inc, 1988 .-- 176 p. - ISBN 978-8774926832 .
• Enoksen, Lars Magnar. Runor. Historie, Tydning, Tolkning. - Lund: Historiske Media, 1999. - ISBN 91-89442-55-5 .
• Jansson, Sven B. F. Runeinskrifter i Sverige. - Almqvist & Wiksell Forlag, 1976. - ISBN 91-20-04457-7 .
• Jacobsen, Lis - Moltke, Erik. Danmarks Runeindskrifter. Lommeudgave. - København: Ejnar Munksgaards Forlag.
• Otto von Friesen. Rökstenen. Runstenen vid Röks kyrka Lysings härad Östergötland. - Stockholm: Vitterhetsakademien, 1920.

• Arntz, Helmut . Handbuch der Runenkunde. Halle / Saale: Niemeyer 1935.
• Arntz, Helmut . Die Runenschrift. Ihre Geschichte und ihre Denkmaeler. Halle / Saale: Niemeyer 1938.
• Hunger, Ulrich . Die Runenkunde im Dritten Reich. Ein Beitrag zur Wissenschafts- und Ideologiegeschichte des Nationalsozialismus. Frankfurt / Main: Lang 1984.
• Grimm, Wilhelm Carl. Über deutsche Runen. 1821.
• Gaul-Ferenschild, Hartmut . National-voelkisch-konservative Germanistik. Kritische Wissenschaftsgeschichte in personengeschichtlicher Darstellung. Bonn: Bolvier 1993.
• Kater, Michael H. Das "Ahnenerbe" der SS 1935-1945. Ein Beitrag zur Kulturpolitik des Dritten Reiches. 2. erg. Aufl. Muenchen: Oldenbourg 1997.
• Krause, Wolfgang . Was man in Runen ritzte. 2. verb. Aufl. Halle / Saale: Niemeyer 1943.
• Plassmann, Joseph Otto . Runenformen in brauchtuemlichen Sinnbildern. In: Germanien. Jg. 4 — H.4 (1936), S.105-114.
• Poliakov, Leon & Wulf, Joseph . Das dritte Reich und seine Denker. Wien: Ullstein 1983.
• Reichardt, Konstantin . Runenkunde. Jena: Diederichs 1936 Runenberichte. Bd. 1 H.1-4 (1939-1942).
• Roemer, Ruth . Sprachwissenschaft und Rasseideologie in Deutschland. Muenchen: Fink 1985.
• Weigel, Karl Theodor . Runen und Sinnbilder. Berlin: Metzner 1935.
• Wirth, Hermann . Die heilige Urschrift der Menschheit. 2. Bde. Leipzig: Hase & Koehler, 1931.
• Wuest, Walther : Zur Erkenntnis deutschen Wesens. Deutsches Ahnenerbe - Das Ahnenerbe. In: Germanien. Jg. 5 — H.4 (1937), S. 97-101.
• Jansson, Sven B. F. Runeinskrifter i Sverige. - Almqvist & Wiksell Forlag, 1976. - ISBN 91-20-04457-7 .
• Jacobsen, Lis - Moltke, Erik. Danmarks Runeindskrifter. Lommeudgave. - København: Ejnar Munksgaards Forlag.
• Cheksturina V. M. Multimodality of the runic sign: monograph. - Kharkov, Ukraine, 2015 .-- ISBN 978-966-2160-64-2 .

• Junicode Runic Font Date of treatment November 10, 2018. Archived on August 11, 2011.
• Arild Hauge's website, entirely dedicated to rune issues (Norwegian) . Date of treatment March 23, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• A brief overview of the Arilda Hauge website . Date of treatment March 23, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• Runes on the Ancient Scriprs website . Date of treatment March 26, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• The mythological song "Speech of the High (Odin)" (Russian) . Date of treatment January 17, 2018. Archived on August 11, 2011.
• The mythological song "Sigrdriva's Speech" (Russian) . Date of treatment April 12, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• About the German runes and runes of Middle-earth (German) . Date of treatment April 14, 2009. Archived August 11, 2011.
• A.A. Khlevov. On the historical and cultural interpretation of the Kerch runes (Russian) . Date of treatment January 17, 2018. Archived on August 11, 2011.