Solid Fir

The tree was discovered by the English plant collector William Lobb during the expedition to California in 1849-1853 ^{[K 1] [8]} .

In the scientific literature, the first fir was described by the British botanist George Gordon in 1858 in the monograph “The pinetum: being a synopsis of all the coniferous plants at present known, with descriptions, history, and synonymes, and filled nearly one hundred new kinds”; he named her Picea concolor ^[9] .

The description of the species contained the following information ^[9] :

Long, flat and thin needles, very similar to Picea grandis needles, but the same color on both sides. Cones are cylindrical. The scales are falling.
A tall tree, found in the mountains of New Mexico by Engelman , there is no other information about it.

Original text

Leaves, long, linear, flat, and much resembling those of Picea grandis, but with faces of the leaves of the same color. Cones, cylindrical. Scales, deciduous.
A tall tree, found on the mountains of New Mexico by Engelmann, of which nothing further is known.

In 1861, in the work of John Lindley and Friedrich Hildebrand , the currently accepted scientific name Abies concolor was first mentioned ^[10] .

This species epithet , concolor (“one-color”), was obtained by needles, which, unlike other members of the genus, have the same bluish-green color on both sides.

In the botanical literature, the following synonyms ^{[10] of the} species Fir plain ( Abies concolor ) are known for monochromatic fir:

The common English name for the fir is “white fir” , but the same name may apply to other types of fir, as shown in the table below ^[11] :

Monochrome fir - powerful ( trunk diameter up to 1.9 meters), tall (up to 60 meters) tree with a wide conical crown , dense in youth and relatively rare and lowered in old age; sharp spike-like peak (in old trees, it becomes flatter) ^{[2] [13]} .

The bark is gray, smooth, hard; the thickness at the base of the tree in adult trees is 10-15 cm, can reach 18 cm, with deep longitudinal grooves, resistant to fire ^[14] . Skeletal branches are located at right angles to the trunk, prone to sagging with age. Branching branches are small, smooth, with a yellowish pubescence, usually directed upwards. The buds are yellow-green, dull and resinous, about 6 cm long ^{[2] [13]} .

The needles are flat, green or bluish-green, with grayish-white lines on both sides ^[15] , often sickle-curved, at the apex rounded or blunt-pointed, with a slightly expanded base, asymmetrically located ^[16] . Length 1.5-6 cm, width 2-3 mm. On the lower surface of the needle, there are 4-8 rows of stomata on both sides of the central vein. On the upper surface, 7-12 (5-18) rows of stomata are likewise located. They have a pungent odor reminiscent of camphor ^{[13] [17]} .

Male strobiles are red or purple, female strobes are green. Cones are large, sessile, oval-cylindrical, 7-12 cm long, 3-4 cm wide; at the beginning of ripening, olive green, then turn yellow brown and dark brown. Scales 2.5–3 × 2.8–3.8 cm in size, covering shorter than seed. Seeds are brown with a pinkish wing, 8-13 mm long; cotyledons 5–9 (according to other sources 5–7 ^[18] ) ^{[2] [13]} . One kilogram contains from 22,000 to 33,000 seeds ^[19] ; the average weight of 1000 pieces is approximately 35 grams ^[2] .

The number of chromosomes is 2n = 24 ^[13] .

Varieties

Two species are recognized in one-color fir based on differences in morphological (differences in the length and shape of the tips of the needles) and chemical characteristics (different contents of terpenes ^[20] ) ^{[18] [21]} :

• Abies concolor var. concolor : the local name is “Rocky Mountain Fir” ( Rocky Mountain white fir );
• Abies concolor var. lowiana ( Gordon ) Lemmon (1895) : the local name is California Fir.

Varieties of lowiana and concolor can be distinguished as follows ^[13] :

Monochrome fir - a common tree in the western and southwestern parts of the North American continent . Its natural range extends from the Blue Mountains ( Oregon ) in the north to the Cascade Mountains , across California and further south to the San Pedro Martir Mountains ( English Sierra de San Pedro Mártir ) in Baja California ( Mexico ); through the entire southern part of Idaho to Wyoming - on the northern border and through the entire southern part of the Colorado Plateau to the south of the Rocky Mountains in Utah and Colorado . Isolated fir forests can be found in the mountains of southern Arizona and New Mexico , as well as in northern Mexico ^[21] .

Variety Abies concolor var. concolor is found in the highlands of central and southern Colorado , in southeastern Idaho and Nevada , extending south to southeastern and southern California , Arizona, and New Mexico , with localized groups in northwestern Mexico . Occasionally, specimens of this fir can be seen in the mountains of the eastern part of the Mojave Desert in California. The Fir of the Rocky Mountains is often found on the eastern edge of the Great Basin , which divides more than 300 km of two varieties of the same species ^[21] .

Variety Abies concolor var. lowiana grows mainly in the Sierra Nevada , Klamath and Siskyu mountains ( Eng. Siskiyou Mountains ) in California , as well as in western Nevada on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada ^[21] .

Full list of natural habitats (in alphabetical order):

It is noted that large artificial landscape plantings of monochromatic fir in the north and northeast of the United States make it possible to include the states of Maine and Massachusetts in the list of tree distribution ^[21] .

The tree is listed in the 1998 ^{[To 4]} Red List of Threatened Species , Category LC (Low Risk) ^[22] .

Natural growing conditions

The natural conditions for the growth of solid fir are areas with a moderately humid climate (minimum annual rainfall of 500 mm; the best conditions for development are from 900 to 1900 mm per year), long winters, moderate or heavy snow cover. Most fir grows at an altitude of 1200-3000 meters along the western Sierra Nevada ^[24] . The minimum frost-free period is 80 days ^[25] .

Variety Abies concolor var. concolor grows mainly in high mountain regions with long snowy winters and relatively short vegetation periods , with an approximately uniform distribution of rainfall during the summer. The average annual rainfall varies from 510 to 890 mm. Variety Abies concolor var. lowiana is found both in cold mountainous regions and warm lowland areas, preferring a more humid climate: the average annual rainfall ranges from 890 to 1900 mm and even more. This fir grows best in the south of the Cascade Mountains and the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada ^[26] .

Fir, as a rule, is quite resistant to a relatively wide range of soil parameters, including its structure, acidity and nutrient content; sensitive to excess moisture and lack of soil nitrogen ^[26] .

The tree prefers deep, loose, moderately acidic, well-drained soils based on various parent rocks: andesite , basalt , granite , pumice , sandstone, and slate ^[24] .

The most common neighbors of monochromatic fir in the mixed coniferous forests of California and Oregon are the great fir ( Abies grandis ), the Strawberry tree of Menzies ( Arbutus menziesii ), the densely flowered lithocarpus ( Lithocarpus densiflorus ), the downy-down calocentrus ( Calocedrus decurrenffeffe pinea , Pinna pine, and pine Lambert ( Pinus lambertiana ), yellow pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) and twisted pine ( Pinus contorta ), Menzies pseudotug ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ), Kellogg oak ( Quercus kelloggii ). In the central part of Sierra Nevada, a companion of fir is a relatively rare giant sequoiadendron ( Sequoiadendron giganteum ) ^[26] .

In the Rocky Mountains, adjacent are the Menzies pseudotug ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ), yellow pine ( Pinus ponderosa ), subalpine fir ( Abies lasiocarpa ), prickly spruce ( Picea pungens ) and Engelman spruce ( Picea engelmannii ), poplar-like poplar .

Monochrome fir is the dominant of mixed coniferous forests within its range and only in its northern borders (Oregon) is the western tsuga ( Tsuga heterophylla ), as well as, possibly, in the west, thuja folded ( Thuja plicata ) can compete with it in especially humid areas. In high mountain areas, fir dominates undividedly, sometimes forming pure stands ^[26] .

Monochrome fir occupies an important ecological niche in places of its natural growth. Many small mammals ( mice , squirrels , chipmunks , etc.) and birds ( partridges , tits , etc.) feed on tree seeds, black-tailed deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) eat young shoots, blue grouse ( Dendragapus obscurus ) - on needles, and North American porcupine ( Erethizon dorsatum ) gnaws at the bark of young trees ^[27] .

Cultivation

General requirements

Regarding drought tolerance, one-color fir stands in one of the first places among firs cultivated in Central Russia , tolerates not very frosty winters, is relatively wind-resistant, due to the late opening of buds by spring frosts, it is very light-loving, tolerates urban conditions and adverse environmental factors ^[7] .

It grows well on fresh deep sandy loam and loam , but can grow on other types of soil, preferring a slightly acidic environment; Required pH range: 5.5-7.8 ^[25] . Sensitive to soil salinization ^[28] .

Young fir seedlings can grow in shaded conditions, but in full sunlight they develop much better ^[11] .

According to the methodology of the US Department of Agriculture ^[29], fir can be cultivated in zones 3–7 ^[30] (according to other sources: 4–8 ^[31] ).

Studies by Japanese scientists showed that the maximum frost resistance of winter fir shoots is −35 ° C for apical buds and −70 ° C for shoots and needles ^[4] .

In Russia, the tree can be cultivated from St. Petersburg to the Black Sea coast, while it bears fruit in the western part of the forest and steppe zones, as well as in the Caucasus ^[2] .

Care

After planting a young tree with a thin trunk, as a rule, it is required to ensure its protection from strong winds with the help of special supports. Excessive direct sunlight should also be avoided: it is better to use a small penumbra. Fertilize the plant after rooting and then every 2-3 years at the end of winter or at the beginning of autumn ^[32] .

In the first season after planting (transplanting), fir requires regular uniform moistening of the soil, usually once every 2-3 weeks (without overmoistening), then artificial irrigation can be stopped, resuming it only during drought ^[32] .

In early spring, with an increase in daytime temperature, preventative treatment of trees with pesticides can be carried out to protect against potential insect pests; treatment with a wide spectrum of fungicides is also recommended to prevent the development of fungal diseases, especially in conditions of excessive humidity ^[32] .

Fir transplantation is carried out only with a closed root system using a formed earthen lump wrapped in special coarse jute or linen fabric. Incorrect pruning of roots dramatically reduces the chances of rooting a plant in a new place ^[30] .

Reproduction

Fir, as it happens in natural conditions, is usually propagated by seeds; however, when planting, it is recommended to place from 10 to 15 seeds per each seat. New shoots appear in the spring, and usually less than 50% of the seeds germinate. Seedlings stand in one place without transplant from two to four years. When planning large areas of planting and the absence of the necessary seedlings usually contains at least ten seed trees of fir per hectare ^[24] .

When planting, preliminary stratification of seeds at a temperature of 1-5 ° C (optimum 1 ° C) for 1 month is recommended, while seed germination is better in the light. Germination of freshly harvested seeds of autumn planting reaches 60-80%; during spring planting: 10-30% ^[33] .

Recommended planting density is approximately 700 to 3000 trees per hectare ^[25] .

Ontogenesis

Fir is a powerful and tall tree: on the Pacific coast, specimens 40–55 meters high and 100–165 centimeters in diameter are common ^{[K 6] [11]} . In the southwestern states, trees have, on average, a height of 41 meters and a diameter of 127 centimeters ^[11] . Fir reaches its best development in the central part of Sierra Nevada in California , where individual specimens reach 58.5 meters in height, trunk girth - 271 centimeters ^[26] .

According to the American National Register of Big Trees (2008–2009), the largest solid fir ( var. Lowiana ) was discovered on the shores of Lake Merced in Yosemite National Park ( California ) in 1997 . Its height was 66.1 m, trunk diameter - 223 cm, trunk girth - about 7 m, root sprawl diameter - 119.2 m, trunk volume - 99 m³. This tree was named after the giant lake Merced ( Eng. Merced Lake Giant ) ^{[13] [34]} . The largest fir, one-color ( var. Concolor ) from Cochiti ( New Mexico ), according to 2005 measurements , had a height of 47.55 m and a trunk girth of 4.57 m ^[35] .

Fir lives about 350 years (in culture no more than 300 years), while it grows slowly, especially in the first five years or even longer ^[11] . In natural conditions, by twenty years a tree can reach a height of 6 meters (maximum). The active growth period occurs in the spring-summer period ^[25] .

In conditions of the middle latitude of Europe, the height of an adult tree reaches 5-10 meters by the age of 20, and by 50 years: 15-20 meters ^{[K 7] [2]} .

Fir is a monoecious plant. Reddish male strobiles , usually less than 1.6 cm long, are tightly grouped in the middle of the crown on the bottom of the annual shoot; female strobils are also located on annual shoots, but more often in the upper part of the crown, although occasionally both male and female cones can be on the same branch. Fir blooms in May - June (for the concolor variety at high altitudes - until July), fertilization occurs shortly afterwards ^[26] .

Ripe cones begin to open in late September or early October, with an abundant seed yield observed approximately every 2–5 years ^[24] .

Monochrome fir quite easily interbreeds with other species of its kind. Reliably established hybrids with the following species ^[36] :

• Abies balsamea ;
• Abies fraseri ;
• Abies grandis ;
• Abies religiosa .

Hybridization presumably or insufficiently established with the following species:

• Abies alba ;
• Abies amabilis ;
• Abies cephalonica ;
• Abies nordmanniana ;
• Abies procera ;
• Abies sibirica .

Pests and Diseases

In general, insects do not cause serious damage to this species, but in some cases there is a danger of negative effects ^[30] .

The bark beetle Scolytus ventralis , which is the main pest of fir forests in the western states of North America, does the most harm to one-color fir ^{[K 8]} . The insect affects both young and adult firs, with outbreaks occurring mainly due to tree stress caused by adverse conditions: drought, diseases, or decay of needles. Trees can be completely destroyed, and survivors can be re-attacked by the pest ^[37] .

The insects colonizing on cones of one-color fir can be divided into three conditional groups:

• seed-eating fir: Megastigmus pinus ( pine Semeed ), Megastigmus rafni , Earomyia abietum ;
• eating cones and fir seeds: Dioryctria abietivorella , Eucosma siskiyouana , Cydia bracteatana , Barbara sp .;
• feeding on bracts and cone scales: Asynapta hopkinsi , Dasineura abiesemia , Ressiliella conicola , Lasiomma abietis ^[38] .

Roundworms are also found among fir pests, in particular: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus ( Pine tree nematode ) ^[39] . The main carriers of nematodes in the birthplace of monochromatic fir are black barbel . Penetrating into the woods of a healthy tree, they feed on the epithelial cells of the resin channels and, under favorable conditions, quickly multiply and spread throughout the tree; while the affected branches dry out. Currently, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus ( Pine tree nematode ) is included in the quarantine lists of many countries, including Russia ^[40] .

The main plant pest of one-color fir is the parasitic plant artesutobium fir from the genus Arceutobium . It grows on the branches of a tree, while the roots penetrate the phloem of the skeletal branches of the host tree. Artesutobium weakens the tree, making it defenseless against fungal infections and the adverse effects of insect pests, and also forms ulcers on the trunk, making it unsuitable for industrial use ^[41] .

Monochrome fir is highly sensitive to laminate root rot caused by the fungus Phellinus weirii ^[42] . Among pathogenic fungi parasitizing on fir, the most common are Echinodontium tinctorium , Heterobasidion annosum , Pholiota limonella , Hericium abietis , Stereum sanguinolentum , Perenniporia subacida, and Amylostereum chailletii ^[43] .

Sound rot caused by fungi of the Fomes genus and some others causes serious damage to fir. Because of it, in the USA, commercial wood losses account for about 15% of the total commercial volume ^[44] .

According to other sources, the chemical composition of wood ^{[K 9]} , as well as its solubility in various media, is as follows ^[46] :

A study of the chemical composition of the tree bark showed that it contains a large amount of flavonoids and, in particular, catechins (the recoverable amount is up to 16.62% from the bast of a 241-year-old tree) ^[50] .

We also note that one-color fir is included in the list of air- allergenic plants ^[51] .

The sapwood and core of the fir are almost white to almost red-brown. Wood has a relatively rough texture and does not have a specific taste or smell. Usually it has a rectilinear structure and does not warp if properly dried. It has moderate or low strength, flexibility, indicators of resistance to deformation and resistance to shock loads; susceptible to bacterial damage: requires antiseptic treatment, while the penetration of preservatives deep into the wood is difficult. Holds glue and paint well ^[52] .

Monochrome fir wood is lightweight, comfortable and easy to process, it is not prone to cracking, but it holds nails moderately ^[24] .

Freshly cut wood has a moisture content of 98% for sound wood and 160% for sapwood (calculation is based on relatively dry wood) ^[53] .

The density of freshly cut wood ^{[K 13]} is approximately 720–740 kg / m³ dried (12% moisture): 435–440 kg / m³ ^[54] .

The mechanical properties of wood ^{[K 14] are} presented in table ^{[52] [55]} :

Shrinkage upon drying,% ^[52] :

Application in the pulp and paper and woodworking industries

Of the firs growing in the western part of the USA , fir is one-color and five other types of fir ^{[K 16]} - the industrial name of the group “white fir” ( English white fir ) - are of commercial importance and harvested on an industrial scale ^[56] .

The production of white fir lumber in the USA in the 20th century fluctuated significantly: the minimum value fell on the 1930s (about 150–285 thousand m³ per year), then, starting in 1940 , volumes began to grow sharply, reaching a maximum in 1959 - a little less than 6700 thousand m³. In the 1960s and 1970s, production fluctuated at the level of 4700–5900 thousand m³, having stabilized by 1980 at 5000 thousand m³. The total volume of harvesting of fir according to data for 1976 amounted to about 14.2 million m³ ^[11] .

Fir wood is one of America’s most versatile conifers and is used to make a variety of building materials, especially suitable for making supports and piles ^[41] .

Fir lumber is distinguished by the absence of tar emissions and a pleasant texture. Spring wood is almost white in color and summer wood is a reddish-brown hue, and the contrast between sapwood and core is so insignificant that it is often indistinguishable ^[57] .

The main areas of use of solid wood and lumber fir are: house building , manufacturing of wooden containers , construction of temporary wooden structures; manufacture of window frames, doors and various joinery ^[56] .

Wood is also used for the manufacture of formwork and rafters , a wooden frame for wall sheathing and roofing, siding . Industrial purpose is associated with the production of plywood , pallets , furniture parts, carpentry boards ^[11] .

Fir wood waste can be used as firewood, although it does not produce a large amount of heat ^[41] .

Fir wood is a valuable raw material for the production of softwood pulp , and the average length of the wood fiber of this species is very high ^{[K 17]} : 4.63 mm (for comparison: Lambert pine ( Pinus lambertiana ) - 4.47 mm, Canadian tsuga ( Tsuga canadensis ) - 4.01 mm, Canadian spruce ( Picea canadensis ) - 3.53 mm, balsam fir ( Abies balsamea ) - 3.10 mm) ^[58] .

According to a study by American scientists, solid fir can be successfully used for the production of fuel ethanol ^[59] .

Application in Perfumery and Medicine

Essential oil obtained from monochromatic fir has a fresh, invigorating aroma , and due to the high content of terpenes , has a strong antioxidant effect and has a beneficial effect on the immune system . It is used as an aromatic agent, as well as during massage ^[60] .

The Indians ^{[K 18]} widely used fir for medical purposes: needles were used to relieve pain caused by rheumatism and pulmonary diseases; resin - for the treatment of cuts, ulcers and boils , as well as for the preparation of decoctions in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases ; infusions of the cortex attempted to treat tuberculosis ^[61] .

New Mexico aborigines have used fir resin for dental treatment ^[62] .

Extracts from the bark of fir monochromatic showed antitumor activity against duodenal adenocarcinoma when tested at the National Cancer Chemotherapy Center , USA ( English Cancer Chemotherapy National Service Center ). One of the active components turned out to be complex complex tannin ^[63] .

Other use

In California and other southwestern states of the USA, fir is used as a Christmas fir ^[64] : it smells good, holds its shape well and does not crumble for a long time after cutting ^[24] .

Klamath Indians used tree bark to stain deer skins in a darker shade of brown ^[61] .

Many Native Americans use plain fir for making tea ^[62] .

As a drought and heat resistant tree, fir is often used for landscape planting in rural areas and suburbs in the northern United States .

Due to the ability of fir to stabilize the soil, it is used to strengthen the soil during the construction of roads ^[41] .

A unique property of the plant lies in its ability to purify air polluted by sulfur dioxide (SO ₂ ) ^[65] .

Plant cultivation began in 1851 , when William Lobb introduced fir in the English nursery Veitch ( English Veitch Nurseries ) ^[66] .

Having high decorative properties (according to experts ^{[7] [67]} ), solid fir is used in landscape design and construction in solitary or small group plantings. It goes well with larch trees , especially in autumn, when the bluish tint of fir is most clearly manifested against the background of their yellow needles ^[7] .

In Central Europe, solid fir is used as a street and park tree, as well as to create urban forest plantations ^[68] .

The popularity of this coniferous plant in ornamental crop production is also associated with high, in comparison with most other types of fir, adaptive properties , resistance to low and high temperatures, drought and excess moisture, as well as the effects of adverse urban conditions ^[69] . The low sensitivity of this tree to ozone is noted ^[70] .

Cultivars

There are many varieties of fir monochrome, with the number of registered names approaching one hundred. Among cultivars, there are high columnar or conical forms, as well as various dwarfs and half-dwarfs; fast-growing and slow-growing varieties; various forms with the natural color of needles and varieties with silver, golden, blue or other non-traditional shades ^[71] .

Despite the fact that one-color fir is quite rare in urban landscaping and urban landscape construction in Russia, it is quite widespread in Russian botanical collections: in 28 out of 63 available (44.4%) ^[73] .

The tree can be found in the Main Botanical Garden named after N.V. Tsitsin RAS ( Moscow ), the Botanical Garden of the Moscow Medical Academy named after I. M. Sechenova (Moscow) ^[74] , Botanical Garden of the Institute of Biology of the Komi Scientific Center, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences ( Syktyvkar ) ^[75] , arboretum of the Krapiven Forestry Technical College ( Tula Region ) ^[76] , Botanical Garden and Institute of the Mari State Technical University ( Yoshkar -Ola ) ^[77] , Botanical Garden Institute of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences ( Vladivostok ) ^[3] and many other arboretums .

Currently, this tree is often used to implement private landscape design projects and is included in the permanent product list of numerous plant nurseries.

In accordance with GOST 25769-83, solid fir is included in the “Range of conifers for landscaping populated areas” ^[78] .

•  

  Arizona State, Coconino County, Grand Canyon (North Rim), Vista Encantada

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  Yosemite National Park

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  Young trees (about 2 m) in Yosemite National Park

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  The Neighborhood of Fir Monochrome with Geoffrey Pine (San Gorgonio Nature Reserve)

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  Tree in Culture: University of Idaho Arboretum

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  Tree in Culture: Marki, Poland

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  Tree in Culture: Skaryczewski Park, Warsaw, Poland

•  

  Tree in Culture: Zheromsky Park, Warsaw, Poland

Russian-speaking

1. Van der Neer Ya. All about the most popular conifers. - M .: Crystal, 2007. - P. 122-123. - ISBN 5-9603-0040-0 .
2. Trees and shrubs of the USSR. Wild, cultivated and promising for introduction / ed. Dr. biol. sciences, prof. S. Ya. Sokolov and Corr. USSR Academy of Sciences B.K. Shishkin. - M., L .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1949. - T. 1 (gymnosperms). - S. 82-84.
3. Krussman G. Conifers / Per. with him .. - M .: Forest industry, 1986. - 256 p. - 7500 copies. - ISBN 3-489-60222-6 .
4. Kishchenko I. T. Evaluation of the introduction of species of the Pinaceae family in the conditions of Karelia // Botanical Journal. - 2005. - T. 90 , No. 2 . - S. 222-226 .

The article describes the research of 2 indigenous ( Pine ( Pinus sylvestris ), Spruce ( Picea abies )) and 17 introduced species of this family. Pinaceae , including monochromatic fir ( Abies concolor ).

5. Mikhalin M.V., Popkov B.V., Prilutsky A.N. Stability of some conifers in the conditions of the south of Primorye and its change under the influence of growth stimulants // Bulletin of the Botanical Garden of the Institute of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. - 2008. - No. 2 . - S. 45-51 .

The article describes the results of a preliminary assessment of the resistance of four species of conifers in the south of Primorsky Krai: spruce yew ( Taxus cuspidata ), Korean spruce ( Picea koreana ), rough spruce ( Picea asperata ) and one-color fir ( Abies concolor ).

English

1. Agree J. K. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests. - Washington: Island Press, 1993 .-- 505 p. - ISBN 1-55963-230-5 .
2. Betts H. S. American Woods - White Fir. - Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture, 1945.
3. Bloom A. Gardening with conifers. - First edition. - London: Frances Lincoln, 2001 .-- 84-85 p. - ISBN 0-7112-1706-8 .
4. Bonnicksen T. M. White fir (Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl.): A bibliography with abstracts. - Berkeley: University of California, 1972. - 98 p.
5. Charlet D. A. Atlas of Nevada conifers: a phytogeographic reference. - Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1996 .-- 320 p. - ISBN 0-87417-265-9 .
6. Critchfield W. B. Hybridization of the California Firs (English) // Forest Science. - 1988. - Vol. 34 , no. 1 . - P. 139-151 .
7. Eckenwalder J. E. Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference. - London: Timber Press, 2009 .-- P. 91-92. - ISBN 978-0-88192-974-4 .
8. Elias T. S. The complete trees of North America: field guide and natural history. - New York: Gramercy Pub. Co, 1987 .-- 948 p. - ISBN 978-0-51764-104-0 .
9. Elmore F. H. Shrubs and trees of the Southwest Uplands. - Popular Series No. 19. - Tucson: Western National Parks Association, 1976. - P. 160. - ISBN 0-911408-41-X .
10. Farjon A. Pinaceae: drawings and descriptions of the genera Abies, Cedrus, Pseudolarix, Keteleeria, Nothotsuga, Tsuga, Cathaya, Pseudotsuga, Larix and Picea. - Konigstein: Koeltz Scientific Books, 1990.
11. Hamrick J. L., Libbyand W. J. Variation and Selection in Western US Montane Species. I. White Fir (Eng.) // Silvae Genetica. - 1972. - Vol. 21 , no. 1-2 . - P. 29-35 .
12. Hamrick J. L. Variation and Selection in Western Montane II. Variation within and between Populations of White Fir on an Elevational Transect Species (Eng.) // Theoretical and Applied Genetics. - 1976. - Vol. 47 , no. 1 . - P. 27—34 .
13. Hatch ch. R. Trees of the California Landscape. - Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007 .-- 540 p. - ISBN 978-0-520-25124-3 .
14. Laacke R. J. Abies concolor (Gord. & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr. White Fir // Silvics of North America / Russell M. Burns and Barbara H. Honkala. - Washington: USDA Forest Service., 1990. - T. 1. Conifers. - 681 p. - (Agriculture Handbook 654). - ISBN 978-016027-145-8 .
15. Lanner R. M. Conifers of California. - Los Olivos: Cachuma Press, 1999 .-- 288 p. - ISBN 0-9628505-3-5 .
16. Lanner R. M. Trees of the Great Basin: a natural history. - Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1983.- 215 p.
17. Liu T. A monograph of the genus Abies. - Taipei: Dept. of Forestry, College of Agriculture, National Taiwan University, 1971. - 608 p.
18. Manual of Cultivated Conifers: Hardy in the Cold and Warm Temperature Zone / Edited by Ouden P. Den. - Forestry Sciences Series. - Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1978. - P. 12-14. - ISBN 90-247-2148-2 .
19. North American terrestrial vegetation / Edited by Michael G. Barbour, William D. Billings. - Second edition. - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 .-- 708 p. - ISBN 0-521-55027-0 .
20. Preston R. J., Braham R. R. North American trees. - Fifth edition. - Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. - P. 48-49, 54. - ISBN 0-8138-1526-6 .
21. Standiford R. B. Predicting release of understory white fir (Abies concolor (Gord. And Glend.) Lindl.) In California following removal of overstory. - Berkeley: University of California, 1978.- 266 p.
22. Terrestrial vegetation of California / Edited by Michael G. Barbour, Todd Keeler-Wolf, Allan A. Schoenherr. - Third edition. - Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007 .-- 712 p. - ISBN 0-520-24955-0 .
23. Vidakovic M. Conifers: morphology and variation / translated from Croatian by Maja Soljan. - Zagreb: Graficki zavod Hrvatske, 1991 .-- ISBN 9-788-6399-0279-7.
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• Solid Fir: Information at The Gymnosperm Database | (Retrieved December 23, 2009)
• Solid Fir: Information at Flora of North America | (Retrieved December 23, 2009)
• Solid Fir: US Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) Website Information | (Retrieved December 15, 2009)
• Solid Fir: Information on the US Forest Service website | (Retrieved December 15, 2009)
• Solid Fir: Photos from Northern Arizona Flora | (Retrieved December 23, 2009)
• Solid Fir: Photos on CalPhotos Website | (Retrieved January 12, 2010)
• Solid Fir: Macro Photographs of Flakes , Needles , Escape, and Seeds at Southwest Biological Science Center | (Retrieved December 25, 2009)
• Monochrome fir: climate-vegetation map on the website of the Geological Survey of the US Department of the Interior ( USGS ) | (Retrieved December 25, 2009)