Wallachian language [2] (self-name Limba Rꙋmѫnѣsk ) - the East Romance language of the Wallachians from the XVI-XVIII centuries until the formation of the literary Romanian language in the 1860s [3] . Due to the significant influence of the Slavic languages on him in vocabulary and grammar, the Romanian philologist considered him to be the Creole language [4] .
| Wallachian language | |
|---|---|
| Self name | Limba Rꙋmѫnѣsk (Limba romynyaske) [1] |
| Countries | Wallachia |
| Status | converted to romanian |
| Classification | |
| Category | Languages of Eurasia |
Indo-European family
| |
| Writing | Wallachian Cyrillic |
Unlike the previous stages of Balkan Latin (III – VI centuries), Proto-Romanian language (VII – XI centuries) and preliterate (Daco) Romanian language (XI – XV centuries), whose structure can only be reconstructed using a comparative historical approach and painstaking analysis of language laws, the Wallachian language is reflected in the East Romanesque written monuments of a religious and historical nature. The first written monument in Wallachian is considered [5] letter of the boyar Nyakshu , written in 1521 and discovered in 1894. Until the 1860s, the Wallachian and then the Romanian language used the Cyrillic alphabet ( Vlacho-Slavic alphabet ).
Some modern linguists, from the appearance of written language in the Wallachian language to the middle of the 18th century, when the state of Romania was created and changes were made to the norms of the language, are called the Old Romanian period [1] .
Content
- 1 Names
- 2 Characteristic
- 3 Slavicism
- 4 Grammar
- 5 Alphabet
- 6 See also
- 7 notes
- 8 Literature
- 9 References
Names
In the historiographical and scientific literature there are various names of the language: from the 12th century - Wallachian, Vlashsky, Voloshsky ( late Lat . Lingua Valachica ) [6] , Roman (Wallach. Limba rumlenyaske ) [7] , Wallach-Moldavian ; in the XX century - Old Romanian [1] , Early Romanian [8] , Romanian , Old East Romanian [9] [10] .
According to the Hungarian historian of the 16th century Bonfinius, the Wallachians spoke “in Latin” [11] or, as they say in modern sources, in folk Romance [12] .
After the unification of the Wallachian and Moldavian principalities into a single state , a line is drawn up to supplant Slavisms and replace them with Latinisms and Gallicisms , since 1860 the Cyrillic alphabet was officially replaced by the Latin alphabet [13] , and in 1861 the language received the name “Romanian” ( rum. Rumînească ) [14] [15] .
Feature
In general, the Wallachian language, including the language of writing to Nyakšu, in its grammatical and lexical structure is not too radically different from the modern Romanian language. This indicates that the structure of Wallachian speech was already formed by the 16th century, although the process of its crystallization was not completed completely.
The Wallachian language reveals a great phonetic proximity to some Latin folk forms:
- Saving Lat. endings -u in noun. husband. kind of unit numbers ( semnu instead of modern sem . "sign", unu instead of modern un . "one"). It has been reduced in modern literary language, but is preserved in some dialects.
- Saving Lat. endings -ură / - ure from lat. redecomposed inflection like corpus-corpora (instead of modern truncated-palatalized ur / uri).
- The processes of assimilation were not completed to the end; therefore, diminace and gryndine are more in line with the original language law than we lie. dimineață and grindină , where s> and [16] .
- A number of Latin lexemes also had a wider circulation: aue <uva "grapes" (now obsolete and replaced by modern ones. Struguri / struguri) [17] .
- Preservation of the Latin infinitive in -re: Nu le pot oamenii a credere . (Neculce) [18] .
Slavism
Compared with modern Romanian, in the Wallachian language there were significantly more Slavic elements and tokens, some of which were eliminated during the reform, the so-called the language policy of purism after the unification of the Danube principalities and the creation of Romania. Due to the significant influence of Slavic languages on it in vocabulary and grammar, the Romanian philologist A. Chihak proposed to consider it as Creole [19] .
- Slavic prefixes for - and pre - / when - were used, having lost productivity in the modern language, but preserved in a number of tokens and dialects: zăuita / zauyta , (i) zafla / izafla ; pribeag / encroachment , primejdie / primage , prisacă / prisake , preakurat, etc.
- under the influence of the Church Slavonic language, a liturgical Romanian language was formed , which had a significantly larger number of Slavs than now (cf. Orthodox instead of the later Orthodox ).
- many toponyms of Wallachia and Transylvania also appeared under their Slavic names, later traced in the Romanian way: Dlegopolé> Campulung , Belgrade> Alba-Julia , etc.
- an almost complete absence of gallicisms and Latinisms with a significant proportion of Greekisms , Turkisms, and Magyarisms , some of which became outdated over time (such as the village and village).
- maintaining the productivity of -i verbs.
Grammar
Another grammatical feature of the Wallachian language was the fact that the postpositive article accompanied each word as part of a noun phrase group. Here are a few examples: Wallach. pryasfintsitului patintelui patriarchului / preasfinţitului părintelui patriarhului " blessed father patriarch" instead of sovr. room. pryasfintsitului perint patriarch / preasfinţitului părinte patriarh .
Alphabet
The alphabet was very close to the contemporary Church Slavonic ; the differences in the composition of the alphabet (at the end of the 18th and 19th centuries) are as follows:
- the letter * is used only as a numerical sign , that is, in fact, the letter is not;
- not used, and in this sound value a large us применяется is used;
- the initial syllable [yn] ([yy] before [b], [n], [m]) is denoted by the modified yusovy letter “yn” ;
- for voiced affricates [j], the specially invented letter џ is used .
Some letters ( b , ѣ , u , vowels with the sign of brevity) have a sound content that is different from the Russian version of the Church Slavonic, closer to Bulgarian phonetics.
The alphabetical order is reproduced according to the ABC book : Bukoavn Pentru ъvtsтураtura prunchilѡr de a se deprind atѫt la kunoѣsherѣ Slovener, la Slovenia, shi la chetanie .... Bukureshchis, 1826. The order of letters was not strictly fixed and in some ABCs and primers could differ significantly from the above. Some publications include the letter Ѿ in the alphabet, which, like Y , was never used in the letter, but was used in Easter . Sometimes Ѿ could be written at the beginning of church terms borrowed from Church Slavonic: ѿ empty.
| letter | title | numerical value | transition alphabet | romanian latin | Moldavian Cyrillic | phonetic value | notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BUT | Az | one | but | a | but | / a / | |
| B | Bouquet | b | b | b | / b / | ||
| AT | The vide | 2 | at | v | at | / v / | |
| G | Verb | 3 | g | g, gh | g | / g / | |
| D | Good | four | d | d | d | / d / | |
| Є , E | There is | 5 | e | e | e | / e / | The first variant of the style is used at the beginning of words, the second - in the middle and end. |
| F | Jouvette | - | well | j | well | / ʒ / | |
| Ѕ | Well | 6 | - | - | - | - | In the early monuments ( , XVI century) it was used to convey the affricates / d͡z /, characteristic of northern dialects ( D Д҃ꙋꙋꙋꙋѐѐѐѐттттѐѐѐѐ ). Subsequently discontinued in writing, but was used as a numerical sign. Corresponds to the letter ḑ in the “etymological” variants of the Latin alphabet that existed before 1904. In the modern Romanian language, the letter z is used. |
| Z , Ꙁ | Earth | 7 | z, ḑ | z | s | / z / | Inscription Ꙁ was used in the middle and end of words, as well as for writing numbers. |
| І | The same | 10 | i | i | and | / i / | Both I and I in words borrowed from Greek and through Greek are used on the ground at and iota, respectively, and in Romanian words and in Slavic borrowings are put on the same principle as in pre-revolutionary Russian: I before vowels, And before consonants, and at the end the words. Often used in the form of Ї. |
| AND | AND | 8 | i, ĭ | i | and, y, b | / i /, / j /, / ʲ / | The symbol And with a short ( Y ) was not considered a separate letter. Sound value - non-syllable i (ĭ,)) and palatalization sign (ĭ,:): May / maĭ / mai ("more"); ok / ochĭ / ochi. In later versions of the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, the short sign was also used over U and I. |
| TO | How | twenty | k | c, ch | to | / k / | |
| L | Luda | thirty | l | l | l | / l / | |
| M | Mislete | 40 | m | m | m | / m / | |
| N | Our | fifty | n | n | n | / n / | |
| Ѻ , oh | On | 70 | o | o | about | / o /, / o̯ / | "Broad" O was used at the beginning of the word. |
| P | Peace | 80 | P | p | P | / p / | |
| R | Rice | one hundred | R | r | R | / r / | |
| FROM | Wordѡ | 200 | s | s | from | / s / | |
| T | Hardѡ | 300 | t | t | t | / t / | |
| At | Uk | - | ꙋ | u | at | / u /, / u̯ / | In the traditional version, only a gamma-like style was used. In later versions, it was used with a short ( Ў ) to denote a non-syllable / u /. |
| Ѹ | At | - | ɣ | u | at | / u / | Digraph Ou was used at the beginning of the word as a positional variant of U |
| F | Fit | 500 | f | f | f | / f / | |
| X | Hier | 600 | x | h | x | / h / | |
| Ѡ | Ѡ | 800 | o | o | about | / o /, / o̯ / | Ѡ and О differ not only in borrowed, but also in the proper Romanian words. Последовательно was used most consistently in the pronouns and articles lor / -lor and o (лѡр / -лѡр; ѡ), as well as in the words лѡк, вѡр, etc. In some texts, Ѡ was used at the beginning of words instead of Ѻ (most often, wide omega, Ꙍ ), next to the vowels, as well as at the end of the words (ѡм, Адаѡг, аколѡ). |
| Ts | Tsѝ | 900 | c | ț | c | / t͡s / | |
| H | Cherf | 90 | h | c (before e, i) | h | / t͡ʃ / | |
| W | Sha | - | w | ș | w | / ʃ / | |
| U | Scha | - | u | șt | PC | / ʃt / | |
| B | Erya | - | b | ă | uh | / ə / | |
| S | Їѡ́рѵ | - | - | - | - | - | The letter Y was usually included in the alphabet, but was not actually used on the letter, it did not have a digital value. |
| B | Iry | - | - | - | - | - | In a number of texts, b was used after consonants at the end of words. Its function was similar to Kommersant in Church Slavonic and Russian pre-reform spelling . Sometimes b according to the Church Slavonic model was replaced by the sign of paers . |
| Ѣ | To be | - | ea | ea | I am | / e̯a / | In some cases, the letter Ѣ could transmit the sound / e /: putѣ (putere, "strength"). The inconsistency of use Ѣ was associated with the tradition and features of different dialects. |
| Ѫ | Yus | - | î | â, î | s | / ɨ / | |
| YU | YU | - | iɣ, ĭɣ | iu | Yu | / ju /, / j /, // ʲ / | In a number of cases, a short (s̆) sign was placed over S. In this case, its phonetic meaning was similar to Y. Yu was briefly used if, when changing a word that had an initial form at the end of a non-syllable "and" or a soft consonant (usually / r '/), the sound / u / became clear: Cheryu - Cheryury ("sky-heaven" ; rzboyŭ - rzboyuluy ( "war" - "war") In some dialects in place yŭ present overtone [u̯] or [ju̯].. |
| Ꙗ | ко́ко | - | ia | ia | I am | / ja / | The letter was used at the beginning of the word as a positional variant Ѧ . |
| Ѧ | ꙗ́ | - | ia | ia | I am | / ja / | |
| Ѳ | Kita | 9 | t, ft | t, th | t | / t /, / f /, / θ / | Used to accurately convey the Greek spelling of loan words (especially names and titles). |
| Ѯ | Ѯand | 60 | ks | x | cop | / ks / | Used to accurately convey the Greek spelling of loan words (especially names and titles). |
| Ѱ | Ѱand | 700 | ps | ps | ps | / ps / | Used to accurately convey the Greek spelling of loan words (especially names and titles). |
| Џ | Џa | - | џ | g (before e, i) | ӂ | / d͡ʒ / | |
| Ꙟ | Ꙟь | - | în, îm | în, îm | eun | / ɨn /, / ɨm /, / ɨ / | Outwardly resembles an arrow ↑ . Used to convey the preposition / prefix în, îm ("в"). At the beginning of a word, it can also mean / s / in the words ꙟшй ("self"), ꙟль ("self"), etc. It is a modification of one of the uses (probably large: Ꙟ is written at the beginning of words, and Ѫ - in the middle and end). Added to Unicode only from version 5.1, codes U + A65E and U + A65F, and therefore may not display correctly in older versions of fonts. |
| Ѵ | Psilon | 400 | i, ɣ | i, v | and, in | / i /, / y /, / v / | Used to accurately convey the Greek spelling of loan words (especially names and titles). |
See also
- Wallachi
- Tymoch dialect (Vlachsky language)
- Muntensky or Wallachian dialect
- Vlach dialect (gypsy)
- Liturgical Romanian language
- Romanian Cyrillic
- Balkan Latin
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 3 Luht-Narumov, 2001 , p. 578.
- ↑ Romanian language Archived November 29, 2014 to Wayback Machine (unavailable link from 06/14/2016 [1225 days])
- ↑ Luht-Narumov, 2001 , p. 575.
- ↑ Alexandru Chihak Dictionnaire d'étymologie daco-romane. Éléments slaves, magyars, turcs, grecs-moderne et albanais - Francfort s / M. : L. St-Goar, 1879 (French)
- ↑ Costin Anghel, Mihai Stirbu. Aniversare - Epistola lui Neacsu Lupu (rum.) // Jurnanul Naţional: journal. - 2006. - July 2.
- ↑ Johann Georg Schwandner. Scriptores rerum Hungaricarum veteres, ac genuini, partim primum ex tenebris eruti; partim antehac quidem editi, nunc vero ex mss. codicibus, et rarissimis editionibus, Bibliothecae Augustae Vindobonensis, ab innumeris mendis vindicati, ... partim etiam ad nostra vsque tempora .... - impensis Ioannis Pauli Kraus biblioppolae Vindobonensis, 1748.- T. 3.
- ↑ Shornikov P.M. Moldavian identity
- ↑ Luht-Narumov, 2001 , p. 582.
- ↑ History of Hungary: - Volume 1 - M .: Science, 1971 - S. 145
- ↑ Florya B.N. Slavs and their neighbors, Volume 7 - M. Nauka , 1999 - 218 p. - S. 111
- ↑ Bernstein S. Investigations in the field of Bulgarian historical dialectology. T. I. Language of Wallachian letters of the XIV — XV centuries
- ↑ Karpov S.P. History of the Middle Ages. Volume 2 - M. Moscow University Press, 2003 - S. 377
- ↑ Slavica, Volume 27 Bucuresti, 1995 - p. 49
- ↑ Repina T.A. History of the Romanian language. - Publishing House of St. Petersburg University, 2002. - S. 26
- ↑ Al. Dîrul, I. Eţco, N. Raevskii. Limba moldovenească în perioada formării naţiei burgheze moldoveneşti - Chisinau, 1985. - P. 220.
- ↑ dimineata // Dicționare ale limbii române
- ↑ aua // Dicționare ale limbii române
- ↑ Archaic and new Romanian infinitive
- ↑ Alexandru Chihak Słownik Etymologiczny
Literature
- Domosileckaya M.V. Study of the Romanian language and culture of Romanians in Russia (XIX century - early XX century) // Acta Linguistica Petropolitana . Proceedings of the Institute of Linguistic Research, 2009
- Karpov S.P. History of the Middle Ages. Volume 2 - M. Moscow University Press, 2003
- Luht L.I., Narumov B.P. Romanian language // World Languages. Romance languages. - M .: Academia, 2001 .-- S. 574-626. - 722 s. - ISBN 5-87444-016-X .
- Repina T. A. History of the Romanian language. - SPb. : Publishing House of St. Petersburg University, 2002. - S. 26
- Florya B.N. Slavs and their neighbors, Volume 7 - M. Nauka , 1999 - 218 p.
- Cartojan, N. Istoria Literaturii Române Vechi . - Bucarești, 1980. (rum.)
- Chitimia, IC; Toma, Stela. Crestomatie de Literatură Româna Veche. - Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia, 1984, 1989. Vol. I , II . (room)