Fauna of israel

The fauna of Israel is diverse even by world standards: numerous species of animals and plants coexist in a small space. In total, about 3.5% of the world's known species of animals and plants were observed in Israel, mainly due to their proximity to two rich species of the sea - the Mediterranean and the Red ^[2] . In Israel, more than one hundred species of mammals (including 33 species of bats ^[6] ), more than one hundred species of reptiles and more than 500 species of birds (of which more than 200 species nest and breed chicks in Israel ^{[7] [8]} ), and also about 30 thousand species of invertebrates ^[1] . In Israel, the same number of bird species was observed as in California, which is 20 times larger than its size ^[2] .

The biodiversity of Israel is often called unique, although in publications from 2009 and 2011, researchers at Tel Aviv University show that it is not exclusive to a country of this size, located in the southern part of the Palearctic biogeographic region ^[9] . The diversity of fauna and flora is dictated by the position of the country at the junction of three natural regions: the European-Mediterranean, Iran-Turan and East African, on the narrow "bridge" between Eurasia and Africa , through which from ancient times new species of animals penetrated from the north, south and east . For many of the species living in Israel (including most mammals), this country is the extreme geographical point of their distribution ^{[10] [11]} . To date, the region where Israel is located, are the path of mass sea and air migrations ^[2] . The Ministry of Environmental Protection of Israel reports that according to one of the classifications in Israel, there are 46 types of ecosystems , combined into 11 different categories ^[12] . The possibility of the coexistence of different species in a limited space is explained not only by the geographical and climatic diversity of the country's nature ^[1] , but also by human influence. The constant conquest of these lands by new invaders led to the destruction of the vegetation cover, and with it many species of herbivores and predators, and in their place came new, more adapted for survival, including those brought in by the conquerors. The fauna of the Land of Israel is constantly changing and even now differs from that existing during the years of Turkish rule and the British mandate ^[3] .

The first land representatives of the fauna in the territory of modern Israel appear in the Eocene when this territory rose above sea level. During this period, it is associated only with the Afro-Arabian massif , and it is from its representatives (such as daman and tilapia ) that the fauna of this time consists ^[3] .

In the Pliocene and the beginning of the Pleistocene, the fauna of the Land of Israel resembles the fauna of the savannah of modern East Africa ^{[3] [13]} ; it contains white rhino ^[14] , giraffe ^[15] , warthog , hippo , antelope and spotted hyena . During the Pleistocene, Indian species, in particular, various wild bulls, and representatives of the fauna of Central Asia and Southern Europe: wolf , badger , wild donkeys , wild horses ^[1] and gazelles ^[3] also penetrate these lands.

As the wet and dry climatic periods alternated, more cold-loving species from the north, driven by glaciation, sometimes from the dry south, came to the Middle East. Climate changes were accompanied by massive regional extinctions: wild camels disappeared from the territory of modern Israel 35 thousand years ago, hippos - 10 thousand years ago, already in the Neolithic era. Findings in Ha Yonim cave allow us to determine that during this period noble deer , real bulls , mountain goats, and rodents such as the mouse-like dormouse Myomimus roachi and the hamster Mesocricetus aramaeus also lived in the region ^[16] .

By the end of the Neolithic era in Israel, the modern fauna mainly develops, but later many large species, such as lion , onager , Nile crocodile and others, disappeared as a result of deforestation or were destroyed by people ^[3] . Ancient stone tools found in Ubeidia suggest that man began to influence the composition of the fauna of the Land of Israel more than a million years ago ^[13] . A number of other species are endangered to this day ^[3] .

In the biblical era, the animal kingdom of the Land of Israel was rich and diverse. About 130 animal species are mentioned in the Bible , of which one third are birds and one third are mammals. Many species of large animals are described accurately and in detail ^[3] . The Bible mentions a lion ( Arye , Levi , Shahal , Gur , former symbol of the tribe of Judah ), leopard ( intent ), wolf ( Zeev , former symbol of the tribe of Benjamin ), jackal ( tan ), Mediterranean fox ( shu'al ), Syrian bear ( Dov ), possibly a dugong or narwhal (it is assumed that one of these animals was the biblical tahash , the skin of which was used in the manufacture of the Tabernacle Tabernacle ^{[3] [17]} ); ten herbivorous mammals are mentioned among those allowed for food in Deuteronomy (today there are about 150 species of herbivores that meet the criteria of kashrut in the world ^[18] ). Unclean animals that are not allowed to be eaten include a pig and a one-humped camel ^[3] . Currently, it is believed that the biblical shafan , included in the list of non-kosher animals, whose name was traditionally translated as “hare,” is actually a rocky daman , still widespread in Israel ^[19] . Since biblical times, voles have also been known. Many birds are mentioned in the Bible, including quail ( glory ) ^[3] .

In the Talmud and Mishnah , mammals such as the cheetah ( bardelas ) and the Egyptian mongoose ( nimia ) are mentioned ^[3] . Much attention is also paid to pigeons . The Land of Israel itself in Jewish sources is sometimes called the Land of the Deer ( Heb. ארץ הצבי ) ^[20] .

The Bible Zoo operating in Jerusalem pays special attention to the species mentioned in the Bible in its collection, although other animals are also represented in the collection ^[21] .

Mammals

According to current estimates, 3 out of about a hundred species of mammals in Israel are endemic to its territory ^[10] . As a result of human activity, only during the 20th century such species of mammals as brown bear ( Ursus arctos , subspecies syriacus ), cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus ), water vole ( Arvicola terrestris ) and spectacled horseshoe ( Rhinolophus mehelyi ) completely disappeared from the fauna of Israel ) ^[22] . 4 more species that disappeared during this period of time were successfully reintroduced in their former habitats: roe deer ( Capreolus caprelous ) ^[23] , Arabian oryx ( Oryx leucoryx ) ^[24] , Iranian fallow deer ( Dama dama mesopotamica ) ^[25] and kulan ( Equus hemionus ) ^[26] . Monk seals ( Monachus monachus ), which need sandy beaches for breeding and were found in abundance off the Mediterranean coast of Palestine in the 16th century , were also considered extinct on its territory in the 20th century (the last time a monk seal was observed off the coast of Israel in 1958 year) ^[27] , but in 2009, 2010 and 2012, after more than a 50-year hiatus, their appearance was recorded near the coast of Rosh ha-Nikra , Nagariya and Hof ha-Bonim ^[28] . Representatives of the detachment of sirens , the dugong ( Dugong dugon ), occasionally swim in the coastal waters of Eilat .

The cloven-hoofed squad is currently represented by 8 species belonging to three families. The bovine family is represented by five species: the Nubian mountain goat ( Capra nubiana ) ^[29] , the Arabian oryx ^[24] , the Asian buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ), and the common gazelle ( Gazella gazella with two subspecies G. g. Gazella and G. g. Acaciae ^{[ 30]} ) and the gazelle dorcas ( Gazella dorcas ) ^[31] .

The deer family in Israel is represented by two species: roe deer ^[23] and Iranian fallow deer ^[25] . The Iranian subspecies of fallow deer, which previously inhabited the Middle East, disappeared from the fauna of Palestine as a result of uncontrolled hunting in the late XIX - early XX centuries: the last individual in the region was probably obtained in 1922 in the territory of modern Jordan. But back in 1925, it was possible to purchase the horns of this animal in the Jerusalem market, apparently brought from over the Jordan. As a result of successful reintroduction, the number of Iranian fallow deer in Israel exceeded 1/3 of the world population ^[32] and in 2010 was estimated at 500 individuals. The process began in the second half of the 1970s, when several Iranian fallow deer were brought to Israel, including those brought from Iran on the eve of the revolution ^[33] . In 2005, several individuals were released from the herd of the Jerusalem Zoo in the Sorek stream valley in the Jerusalem area, but due to the failure of the experiment, the reintroduction process in this area was suspended. With the resumption of the program in 2013, six individuals were re-released in the Jerusalem area ^[34] . In the spring of 2015, eight individuals of Iranian fallow deer were released into the forests on Mount Carmel in order to create the third outbreak of the population ^[35] .

The reason for the disappearance of the roe deer from the fauna of Israel at the beginning of the 20th century was uncontrolled hunting, mainly from the Templars from the German colony of Haifa. The Sunday hunt tradition they brought to Palestine became fatal for the local population, which was preserved only in the forests of Carmel and Galilee. The last meeting with a roe deer in Palestine dates back to 1912 - then a two-year-old male was obtained by hunters. In the 1980s, it was decided to launch a program to reintroduce the species into the nature of Israel. In connection with the complete disappearance of the subspecies Capreolus capreolus coxi , which previously inhabited the Middle East, it was decided to create in the Hai Bar Carmel reserve the initial stock of roe deer from individuals acquired in Italy, France and Hungary in order to acclimatize to the Israeli climate and the local flora. In 1996, a program was launched to release roe deer into the wild ^[36] . At the beginning of the XXI century, 10-15 individuals lived on the outside in Carmel and about a dozen more were kept in the Carmel High Bar ^[37]

The pig family is represented by wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), two varieties of which are found in the Galilee (larger) and in the Dead Sea region (smaller) ^[3] . Domesticated species of ungulates are also widespread: camels, cows , donkeys , goats and sheep .

The largest feline predator in Israel at present is the leopard ( Panthera pardus ), which, after the adoption of the law of 1955 on the protection of the wildlife of Israel, multiplied in the Dead Sea region ^[3] . In addition to subpopulations of the Judean desert and the Negev Plateau, individual specimens can also be found on the Mediterranean coast of Israel ^[38] . The cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus ), which previously inhabited open spaces, is considered to have completely disappeared from the country's fauna as a result of hunting, capturing kittens for captivity in order to use it as a decorative and hunting animal and drastically reducing the number of gazelles - the main object of cheetah hunting. Even in the twenties of the XX century on the Bedouin market of Beersheba it was possible to purchase skins of a cheetah, obtained in the Negev. The last reliable meeting in Israel was recorded in 1959 in the Arava region ^[39] . In the Negev, on the Judean Highlands and on the Primorsky Lowland, 150 to 200 caracal individuals ( Caracal caracal , represented in Israel by the subspecies schmitzi ) live ^[40] .

The increase in the number of fish farms and the intensification of irrigated agriculture led to the restoration of the reed cat population ( Felis chaus , in Israel represented by the subspecies F. ch. Ssp. Furax ), which was severely damaged as a result of draining wetlands. According to zoologists, about 600 individuals of this species currently live in Israel. The only threat to the future reed cat in the country remains poaching ^[41] . A sand cat ( Felis margarita ), which lived in the sands of Arava and the Sinai Peninsula, completely disappeared from the fauna of Israel. After the signing of peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, the entire small Israeli population of a sand dune, numbering several dozen individuals, was in the territories transferred to these countries. The project to return to nature of this species, the center of which was the Bible Zoo in Jerusalem, was suspended in 2010 after a pair of dune cats born in the zoo and released into nature in the Kibbutz area of Lotan failed to survive ^[42] . The future of the Israeli forest cat population ( Felis silvestris ) is worrying, mainly due to mixing with feral domestic cats ( Felis silvestris catus ) ^[43] ; the latter are extremely common in Israel ^[3] .

Despite the fact that a special study of the number of striped hyena ( Hyena heyna ), which lives in treeless areas almost throughout Israel, has never been conducted, it is obvious that its number has decreased. The main factors of the decrease in numbers are the scattering of poisoned baits by farmers in order to combat predators, causeless shooting at it and death on the roads at night - the time of its activity ^[44] .

On the territory of Israel you can meet a wolf ( Canis lupus ) and a jackal ( Canis aureus ). The growth of the Israeli wolf population in recent decades is an indicator of successful work and a source of pride for the country's environmental structures. The species has regained its former range and is currently found throughout Israel. The largest number (about a hundred individuals) of wolves inhabits the Golan plateau , which makes this place one of the most densely populated wolves in the world in terms of square kilometers. The second most densely populated area by wolves is the south of Arava, where 30 to 40 individuals inhabit the relatively small desert space from Eilat to the kibbutz Paran . About 40 more individuals inhabit Eastern Galilee and the Gilboa Mountains. In the anthropogenic landscape, the number of wolves is less. The growth of the wolf population leads to constant friction between farmers whose herds of large and small cattle wolves cause damage, and environmental organizations ^[45] .

Foxes are represented in Israel by three species. The most widespread common fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), two subspecies of which ( Vulpes vulpes ssp. Palaestina and V. v. Ssp. Arabica ) inhabit the entire territory of the country. The abundance of the common fox, severely damaged by the predator control company in the 1960s, recovered and even increased with the expansion of its human presence in regions that were not previously part of its range. [1] There are stable urban populations of the common fox in a number of settlements, including such large cities as Tel Aviv, Jerusalem and Be'er Sheva. The number of sand fox (Vulpes rueppellii), for which the Negev is the northern boundary of its range, has declined in recent decades to several hundred individuals, mainly due to the displacement of larger species of canids - the wolf and ordinary fox, until its complete extinction from some areas former range (for example, from the sandy areas of Arava) ^[46] . The Afghan fox ( Vulpes cana ) was first officially registered as a new species in the fauna of Israel only in 1981, probably due to the insufficient study of the territory and the secretive lifestyle of the species. According to recent data, this smallest species of foxes in Israel, previously identified only with the Judean desert, is more widespread in the desert regions of the country (in the Negev and Arabia, and in the Judean desert to the north to Jericho ). Given a population density of one to four individuals per 2 km², there are apparently several thousand specimens of Afghan fox in Israel as a whole ^[47] . It is successfully propagated in captivity (in particular, in the High Bar Yotvata nursery reserve).

The only representative of the mongoose family in Israel is the Egyptian mongoose ( Herpestes ichneumon ), a sharp decrease in the number of which in the 60s of the last century as a result of the use of poisonous substances to control predators led to a jump in the number of poisonous snakes. As a result of measures taken to limit the use of poison baits, the number of mongoose stabilized and equaled the previous one, while the number of poisonous snakes decreased ^[48] .

The Kunya family is represented by five genera, each of which has one species. If the badger populations ( Meles meles , in Israel, a subspecies of M. m. Ssp canescens ), because of its adaptability to changes in the environment as a result of human activity, are little threatened, and the number of stone marten ( Martes foina , in Israel is a subspecies of M. f. Ssp syriaca ) and its range even increases, the already small population of bandaging ( Vormela peregusna , in Israel, the subspecies syriaca ^[49] ) and honey badger ( Mellivora capensis , in Israel, the subspecies M. c. ssp wilsoni ^[50] ) have greatly decreased, and the otter ( Lutra lutra ) completely disappeared from many places of its former range ^[51] .

In Israel, there is a rocky or Cape daman ( Procavia capensis ), an unusual herbivorous mammal that looks like a short-eared rabbit with hoof-shaped claws on its fingers and suction cups on the soles; Probably the closest relatives of the Damans from the living units are proboscis ^[20] .

Although rabbits are actively raised in Israel for wool and meat, in the wild, according to the guide “Mammals of the Holy Land” published in 1996, in Israel there is only one species of hare - the Cape Hare ( Lepus capensis , apparently with two subspecies L c. arabicus and L. c. syriacus ) ^[52] . If we consider the brown hare not as a species of Cape hare, but as a separate species (none of the two points of view is generally accepted ^[53] ), then it is the second hare species living in Israel ^[54] . The order of hedgehogs is represented by a blackberry family with two genera: Eurasian hedgehogs with an Eastern European hedgehog ( Erinaceus concolor ), preferring parks, gardens and other cultivated land in the Upper Galilee and in the center of the country to the northern Negev; and eared hedgehogs with two species - the Ethiopian hedgehog ( Hemiechinus aethiopicus ) inhabiting the Negev, Arava and the Jordan Valley , and the eared hedgehog ( Hemiechinus auritus ), which previously inhabited the loess and other light soils of the northern Negev and sand dunes (from the Mediterranean coast probably completely disappeared as a result of habitat destruction ^[55] ).

Also, a predominantly nocturnal lifestyle in shrubbery near the water is led by two shrew species of the shrew family: small shrew ( Crocidura suaveolens ) and the less common white-bellied shrew ( Crocidura leucodon ). Perhaps Israel’s endemic is first described in 1996 and found in the Negev shrew Crocidura ramona ^{[10] [56]} .

Bats are the most species-rich mammal detachment of Israel with seven families, 15 genera with 33 species (of which one is considered extinct in Israel and four are on the verge of extinction ). Israel's largest and only non-insectivorous bat is a representative of the Egyptian bat dog family ( Rousettus aegyptiacus ) ^[6] . The largest number of species belongs to the family of smooth-nosed bats (18 species from 8 genera) - including:

• night lights : witty ( Myotis blythii ), Italian ( M. capaccinii ), tricolor ( M. emarginatus ), Nutterera ( M. nattereri ) and large ( M. myotis ); in 1994 in Europe (on Hermon and the Golan Heights up to the coast of Lake Kinneret ) a European mustachioed nightlight ( M. mystacinus ) was also discovered ^{[10] [57]} ;
• batfish : Ruppel ( Pipistrellus rueppellii ), Savia ( P. savii ), Bodenheimer ( P. bodenheimeri ), Mediterranean ( P. kuhlii ), desert ( Pipistrellus ariel ) and dwarf bat ( P. pipistrellus )
• skins : late ( Eptesicus serotinus ) and desert ( Eptesicus bottae )
• red-headed vespers ( Nyctalus noctula ), gray ear- flaps ( Plecotus austriacus ), common long-winged ( Miniopterus schreibersii ), Asian broad - necked dog ( Barbastella leucomelas ), and white-bellied arrow arrow ( Otonycteris hemprichii ).

The second most represented species is the family of horseshoe bats (6 species in 2 genera) - horseshoe Geoffrey ( Rhinolophus clivosus ), Mediterranean ( Rhinolophus blasii ), southern ( Rhinolophus euryale ), large ( Rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) and small ( Rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) as well as the common trident ( Asellia tridens ). Long-tailed bats are represented by two species - a large mouse - tail ( Rhinopoma microphyllum ) and a hardwick mouse- tail ( Rhinopoma hardwicke ). There are also two species in the family of saccoptera bats - the burial ( Taphozous perforatus ) and the blue-bellied ( Taphozous nudiventris ) saccid . The two remaining families include one genus with one species in each: bulldog bats with a wide-eared folded lip ( Tadarida teniotis ) and celandine bats with an Egyptian celord muzzle ( Nycteris thebaica ).

Forest dormouse ( Dryomys nitedula ) from the family of the dormouse lives in forests with typical Mediterranean vegetation in northern Israel, which are the southern border of its world range. At present, it is found in the forests of Galilee, although previously its range also included forests on Carmel. Forest dormouse builds its spherical nests mainly on the branches of the Kaleprinsky oak ( Quercus calliprinos ), often in the midst of prickly vines encircling the trees of the genera Smilax ( Smilax aspera ) and madder ( Rubia tenuifolia ). In addition, there have been cases of nests of forest dormouse in apple orchards ^[58] . In light of the lack of information about the size of the Israeli population of the species due to its secretive nocturnal lifestyle and given the small (about 700 km², and not all of this territory is occupied by forests) area, forest dormouse is listed in the Red Book of Israel's Vertebrates ^[59] . A more extensive range (about 3000 km²), but divided into three isolated populations, is inhabited by a relict black-tailed dormouse ( Eliomys melanurus ). The species is listed in the Red Book of Vertebrates of Israel due to the reduction of natural habitats (in particular, the black-tailed dormouse disappeared in the Tel Dan reserve in the 1980s). The total population is small, but it is not known precisely because of the secretive nightlife. The population in northern Israel is concentrated on the Golan Plateau and on Hermon. The most southern population lives in Arava, in the area of ​​the kibbutz Ein Yahav , where black-tailed dormouse began to populate fruit plantations. Another population exists on the Negev Highlands, where it prefers to populate voids in the trunks of Atlantic pistachios ( Pistacia atlantica ) ^[60] .

Small-sized rodents of the hamster family are represented in Israel by two subfamilies - voles and hamsters . The hillsides of Hermon are the only snow vole habitat in Israel ( Chionomys nivalis , the subspecies Ch. N. Ssp. Hermonensis endemic to Lebanon and Israel live in Israel), where it is found above forest level at heights of at least 1,500 meters. Hermon is the southern boundary of its world range. The limited habitat area (about 15 km²), coupled with the natural scarcity of the species, puts it on the brink of extinction from the country's fauna due to the intensification of human activity in the area and an increase in the number of stone marten and feral domestic cats. Snow vole is listed in the Red Book of Vertebrates of Israel ^[61] . Another species of the vole subfamily represented in Israel is one of the most widespread agricultural pests in the country - the Gunther vole ( Microtus guentheri ). Another species of voles - water vole ( Arvicola terrestris ) - is considered to have disappeared from the fauna of Israel, because it has not been observed in nature for several decades ^[62] .

The only species of the hamster subfamily inhabiting the rocky heights of the center and the north of the country is the gray hamster ( Cricetulus migratorius , a subspecies of C. m. Ssp cinerascens lives in Israel). Probably due to poor knowledge it is considered a rare and few species, more common on Hermon. Israel is for this species the southern boundary of its world range ^[63] .

Living in the harsh conditions of an arid climate, Israel has developed two species of wormy mice, or akomis of the gerbil subfamily, which have a unique metabolic mechanism that can do without food and water for up to 8 days, and the needles that cover the backs of these animals, like hedgehogs, help them struggle for survival. The most common nocturnal Cairo mouse ( Acomys cahirinus ), found throughout Israel. The golden needle mouse ( Acomys russatus ) has a more limited range in the Judean Desert and the Negev. In areas of intersecting habitat with the Cairo mouse, the nocturnal golden needle mouse moves due to competition from nocturnal to daytime activity ^[64] . The rocky sections of the Negev and the Judean Desert adjacent to the Dead Sea are home to another small species of gerbils - the fluffy gerbil ( Sekeetamys calurus ), which lives in small family groups. The same habitat and nocturnal lifestyle lead to a natural competition between this species and its main competitor, the golden needle mouse, for scarce food sources. The fluffy-tailed gerbil dominates in this fight. An extremely low metabolic rate helps to survive in extreme desert conditions (47% of the expected rate for an animal of this size) ^[65]

In Israel, there are a gray rat , or pasuk ( Rattus norvegicus ), and a black rat ( Rattus rattus ), as well as a garden (Egyptian, Alexandrian) rat, which is a subspecies of black ( R. r. Alexandrinus ). With a gray rat, as with a carrier of plague fleas, a systematic struggle is being waged. With the development of gardening in Israel porcupines ( Hystrix indica ) have spread ^[3] . A possible endemic of Israel is the Hermon mouse ( Apodemus hermonensis ) ^[66] , although there is also a point of view that it is not a separate species, but a species of the field mouse Apodemus witherbyi common in Eastern and Southern Europe and Southwest Asia ^[67] .

Birds

Over the entire period of ornithological observations in Israel, about 540 species of birds have been recorded, some of which lead a sedentary lifestyle, some are migratory, wintering or flying species, and some are avian species. Some species belong to different categories at the same time. Of the more than 200 species of nesting birds, only about 175 nest annually, the rest from case to case. In this category, only 57 species are sedentary, year-round species. Most species that nest in Israel and are not sedentary winter in Africa, but black-headed bunting ( Emberiza melanocephala ) winter in India ^[8] , and the nesting subspecies Buzzard in Israel ( Buteo rufinus rufinus ) is the northern nesting region, including Turkey and Eastern Europe ^[68] . 283 of these species are migratory, and 216 species have chosen Israel as a wintering place. More than 130 species were recorded as vagrants with different observation frequencies ^[8] .

The most common falcon species in Israel is the common kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ) - the most frequently nesting falcon in the urban landscape. Local population belonging to the subspecies F. t. ssp tinnunculus , saddled. Wintering and migratory individuals belong to the same subspecies. Also, the saddles inhabiting the southern part of Israel, kestrels, which are closer in appearance to the subspecies F. t. ssp rupicolaeformis , common in Egypt, Sudan and the Arabian Peninsula. They are probably a transitional form between two subspecies ^[70] . The cheglok ( Falco subbuteo ) and the small kestrel ( Falco naumanni ) are much less common ^[69] . The Israeli population of the Mediterranean falcon ( Falco biarmicus , the subspecies F. b. Ssp tanypterus nests in Israel) has declined significantly over the past decades and now has about 25 breeding pairs. This sedentary species, previously inhabiting the steep shores of the wadi and mountain gorges throughout the country, now nests only in the Negev and the Judean desert ^[71] . About a hundred pairs (according to the 1980s) of a sedentary red-headed peregrine falcon, or shahin ( Falco pelegrinoides ) nest in the desert regions of Israel from the north of the Judean desert to the southern Negev ^[72] . Rarely, but regularly, single migratory individuals of the cheglok Eleonora ( Falco eleonorae ) are found ^[73] . Another rare migratory and wintering species is the Saker Falcon ( Falco cherrug ) ^[74] . Between 100 and 150 pairs of silver cheglock ( Falco concolor ), which is approximately 10% of the world's population, return annually to nest in Israel from wintering sites in Madagascar and the coast of Mozambique. The nesting habitat of the silver cheglock is rocky cliffs exclusively in the arid regions of Israel - in the Negev, Arabia, the Judean desert and in the mountains of Eilat ^[75] .

In Israel, there are two species of buzzards from the hawk family, of which the Buzzard ( Buteo rufinus) is the most abundant in the nesting area; in Israel, the nominative subspecies B. r. Ssp rufinus nests. Recently, this species has a tendency to switch from nesting on rocky cliffs to nesting on trees. Another feature of the biology of the Israeli Buzzard population is wintering north of the nesting sites in Eastern Europe and Turkey ^[68] . In 1992, for the first time, nesting in Israel (on the Golan Heights ) of Buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) was recorded. In subsequent years, more nests were discovered and pairs with nesting behavior were observed in the forests of Galilee and Carmel , belonging to subspecies B. b. ssp vulpinus . The individuals of this subspecies make up the largest number of migratory and wintering buzzards. The number of migratory birds, especially during the spring migration, is hundreds of individuals per day and can approach half a million, depending on the direction of the prevailing winds. Several hundred buzzards annually wintering in Israel for the most part belong to the European subspecies B. b. ssp buteo ^[76] . It is extremely rare, but regularly, a bantam buzzard ( Buteo lagopus ) flies to Israel. Large migratory flocks form European tuviks ( Accipiter brevipes ), while less numerous goshawks ( Accipiter gentilis ) and sparrows ( Accipiter nisus ) prefer to fly alone, partially staying in Israel for the winter, joining the local sedentary breeding population.

As rare migratory and wintering species, three of the five vulture species that previously nested in Israel now occur: black vulture ( Aegypius monachus ), bearded vulture ( Gypaetus barbatus ), as well as the African eared vulture ( Torgos tracheliotus ), which is working to create a captive population for the purpose of reintroduction into former habitats ^{[77] [78]} . The populations of the white-headed vulture ( Gyps fulvus ) and vulture ( Neophron percnopterus ), which have been greatly reduced over the past decades, are gradually recovering. Back in the middle of the 20th century, the vulture was considered one of the most numerous species of birds of prey in Israel (500-1000 breeding pairs). But by the 1970s, 50 to 80 pairs of vultures nested here. After an increase in numbers in the eighties, when up to 150 breeding was observed, in 2002-2005 only 27 breeding pairs were recorded ^[79] .

Six species of eagles are most often seen soaring in the sky - the small spotted spotted eagle ( Aquila pomarina ), about 85 thousand of which — the entire world population — migrate to Africa through Israel and the Palestinian Authority ^[80] ; Great spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga ), an endangered species, previously nesting in small numbers in northern Israel, 120-200 of which winter each year in the country ^[81] ; Eastern Steppe Eagle ( Aquila nipalensis ), which is a common migratory and rare wintering species ^[82] ; burial ground ( Aquila heliaca ) - another endangered species, about 70 of which winter each year in Israel ^[83] ; golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos , a subspecies of A. ch. homeyeri nests in Israel, whose population has declined in recent decades to about 20 breeding pairs ^[84] ); and the Kaffir eagle ( Aquila verreauxii ), previously extremely rarely nested in Israel, and now occasionally flies here during its annual wanderings ^[85] . The sedentary hawk eagle ( Hieraaetus fasciatus ), which prefers the mountainous eastern regions of Israel, is extremely rare both on nesting and on migration. In the canyons of the Judean desert, it often nests in the vicinity of the golden eagle. Despite the coincidence of the hunting plots, the smaller hawk eagle occupies a different hunting niche, which excludes conflicts ^[86] . From several hundred to several thousand individuals of the small dwarf eagle ( Hieraaetus pennatus ) are observed annually in Israel on both spring and autumn migration, and only about ten individuals remain for wintering ^[87] .

In 2015, after a long break, the nesting of the White-tailed Eagle ( Haliaeetus albicilla ) was again recorded in Israel - the couple successfully raised the chick in the Hula Reserve ^[88] . Prior to this, the last nesting of two pairs was recorded in 1957. In subsequent years, the white-tailed eagle was regularly observed only during migration and wintering by individual individuals and in small quantities. Thus, the largest number of wintering individuals was recorded in the winter of 1988/9, when seven individuals were recorded, five of them in the Hula reserve. Hula Nature Reserve is the southern boundary of the nesting range of this species, isolated from the nearest habitats in the northern part of Turkey and Iran ^[89] . Annually from Israel, from half a million to a million individuals of bee-eater ( Pernis apivorus ) migrate through Israel ^[90] . In much smaller numbers - several tens of individuals - crested beetles migrate ( Pernis ptilorhynchus , subspecies Ppssp orientalis ). First recorded on migration in 1994, crested beesworms are observed more often and in greater quantities, which reflects a tendency to expand the world range of the species ^[91] . The Israeli population of snake-eater ( Circaetus gallicus ) is between 300 and 500 breeding pairs. In addition, a significant number of individuals of this species fly in Israel and about 10 thousand birds are observed annually on migration. The number of wintering snake eater is insignificant due to the low activity of reptiles in winter ^[92] . The black kite ( Milvus migrans ), which was a breeding settled, migratory and wintering species in northern Israel in the 1940s - 1950s, completely disappeared from the country in subsequent years as a result of the campaign to use agricultural poisons. Currently, Israel rarely breeds in Israel, but remains one of the most numerous species of daytime birds of prey both on migration and in winter, when flocks of several thousand individuals are found ^[93] . A rare migratory and wintering species is the red kite ( Milvus milvus ) ^[94] . In 2011, the nesting of the black-winged smoky kite ( Elanus caeruleus ), previously observed in the country only as an alien species with an increasing frequency of encounters from year to year, was first confirmed in Israel. According to 2015 data, up to 50 pairs of this species may nest in Israel. Such a rapid increase in the number of nesting black-winged smoky kites in Israel is due to the high reproductive ability of the species against the background of the global expansion of the range to the west ^[95] . Passing and wintering in Israel are four types of moons : swamp or reed ( Circus aeruginosus ), field ( Circus cyaneus ), steppe ( Circus macrourus ) and meadow ( Circus pygargus ) ^[96] .

The most common types of owls are house owl ( Athene noctua ) and common barn Owl ( Tyto alba ), whose growth is facilitated by attracting it to fight rodents by hanging nest houses. The gray owl ( Strix aluco ), the long-eared owl ( Asio otus ) and the spyushka ( Otus scops ), which inhabit not only forested areas, but also city parks are more rare. In open spaces, overgrown with a low shrub, you can find a rather rare marsh owl ( Asio flammeus ). Clefts of rocks and caves attract an eagle owl ( Bubo bubo ), which in the Negev is replaced by a desert eagle owl ( Bubo ascalaphus ) ^[69] , an increase in which is observed following the development of agriculture in arid regions. On the steep slopes of the drying riverbeds, deeply cutting through the mountainous sections of the Negev, the Judean desert and the Eilat mountains, the Stag hadorami inhabits the owl, which in 2015 was singled out and was previously defined as the pale owl ( Strix butleri ) ^[97] . In the mountains of Eilat and in Arabia, old spreading acacias are the wintering grounds of a rare desert scoop ( Otus brucei , in Israel represented by the subspecies O. b. Ssp exiguus ), the last reliable nesting of which in Israel was dated 1911. The nesting of this species was again confirmed in 2015, when a live chick was found on a date palm plantation in the Dead Sea region ^[98] . A brown fish owl ( Bubo zeylonensis ), nesting along the rivers of the north of the country, and previously not numerous, disappeared from all known nesting sites (last meeting in 1975) ^[69] .

In Israel, there are several species of storks (of which the white stork , Ciconia ciconia , which, however, rarely nests in Israel itself, is more common), ten species of herons (often found Egyptian , Bulbulcus ibis , small white , Egretta garzetta , gray , Ardea cinerea , and heron , Nycticorax nycticorax ; four more species were recorded only several times ^[69] ), as well as loafs ( Plegadis falcinellus ) and spoonbills ( Platalea leucorodia , do not breed chicks in Israel, but are often found from autumn to spring ^[69] ). Also, from autumn to spring in Israel, you can often see pink pelicans ( Pelecanus onocrotalus ). In the Eilat area, you can see red flamingos ( Phoenicopterus ruber ).

Several tens of thousands of gray cranes ( Grus grus ) fly through Israel every year. The exact number of migratory individuals cannot be determined, since most of the passage takes place at night. Until the middle of the 20th century, only a few individuals remained for the winter in Israel. A sharp increase in the number of wintering individuals occurred in the 70s of the XX century, when several thousand birds were wintering in the Jezreel Valley and the Hefer Valley . The intensification of the cultivation of peanuts in the Hula Valley led in the early 1990s to a change in the wintering places of the gray cranes in Israel. The Hula Valley became the wintering center of this species, while the former places were almost completely abandoned. The number of wintering individuals has also increased sharply - according to 2007 data, about 10 thousand individuals remain wintering in the Hula Valley ^[99] . Most gray cranes observed in Israel belong to the nominative subspecies G. g. ssp grus . Also, individuals belonging to the subspecies G. g. ssp archibaldi and G. g. ssp lilfordi . Another representative of the crane family in Israel is the Demoiselle Crane ( Anthropoides virgo ). Single individuals of this species are rare, but regularly found in winter, mainly in the Hula Valley ^[100]

The cowgirl family is represented in Israel by eight species ^[69] . The most numerous moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus ) is a sedentary, nesting species, the number of nesting individuals of which ranges from a thousand to two thousand ^[101] . In contrast to moorhen, another cowherd species - coot ( Fulica atra ) - nests extremely rarely, more often occurring in the nesting season as a flying species. At the same time, during migration and wintering it is one of the most numerous species of waterfowl in Israel ^[102] . Earlier nesting in the north and in the center of the country , the baby-crusher ( Porzana pusilla ) is now found only as a rare migratory and even rarer wintering species; rare in migration (mainly in spring) and wintering and carriage ( Porzana porzana ) ^[103] . Small Ponzana ( Porzana parva ) is a fairly common migratory and rare wintering species, flying less frequently. Nesting in Israel is not noted, however, given the secretive nature of birds of this species, their presence is not excluded. Secretive behavior is also characteristic of another flying species of shepherd shepherds - the coronet ( Crex crex ) ^[104] . A common migratory and wintering species is a water shepherd ( Rallus aquaticus ), rare as a flying and even rarer as a nesting species ^[105] . Sultanka ( Porphyrio porphyrio ) - the largest and motley colored species of shepherdess of Israel. In the past, nests of sultanas were observed in the area of ​​the artificial Yeruham lake in the Negev; at present, it is possible, but not reliably established, to nest on Maayan-Zvi kibbutz ponds in the north of the country. Outside of these two places, it is a rare flying species ^[106] .

In wetlands, a spur lapwing is often found ( Vanellus spinosus ; in 2008, it was nominated as the “bird of Israel” ^[107] ); sometimes you can find other species of lapwing. Sandpiper ( Calidris minuta ) is often found there; besides it, common charadriiformes are black ( Tringa ochropus ) and herbalist ( Tringa totanus ) ^[69] .

Meadow ticks ( Glareola pratincola ) and the closely related steppe ticks ( Glareola nordmanni ) are common migratory species in Israel, but if the latter does not nest in Israel, then meadow ticks in Palestine used to be a nesting bird in former years in Palestine. This species, settled in colonies of up to several dozens of pairs in open spaces in the north and in the center of the country, with the beginning of intensification of agriculture in the sixties of the last century, almost completely stopped nesting in Israel. The chicks, still incapable of flying, by force of instinct clinging to the ground in danger, died under the wheels of tractors and in the mechanisms of processing units. However, in recent years, as a result of environmental protection measures and awareness-raising among farmland owners, the number of nesting birds has begun to increase. The highest concentration of several dozens of breeding pairs is now observed on potato and peanut plantations in the Hula Valley ^[108]. A local breeding population of meadow tiruks winter in Africa.

The majority of the Anseriformes recorded in Israel are wintering and migratory species, and only four species are mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ), white-eyed duck ( Aythya nyroca ), marble teal ( Marmaronetta angustirostris ) and teal crackling ( Anas querquedula ) nest here the last three are extremely rare. The most numerous migratory and wintering flocks form crested blackheads ( Aythya fuligula ), red-headed dives ( Aythya ferina ), sviyazi ( Anas penelope ), shirokonoski ( Anas clypeata ), teal - whistles ( Anas crecca ), pegans ( Tadorna tadorna ) and chicken - crackers. Gray ducks ( Anas strepera ), pintail ( Anas acuta ), fireweed ( Tadorna ferruginea ), mackerel ( Oxyura leucocephala ), red-footed merganser ( Mergus serrator ), red-nosed ducks ( Netta rufina ) gray ( Anser ans ) are more rare during migration and wintering. White-fronted Geese ( Anser albifrons ) ^[69] . Since the 80s of the last century, an invasion of the Nile goose ( Alopochen aegyptiacus ) has been observed, mainly in the center of the country ^[109] .

Редки, но регулярны одиночные залёты в территориальные воды Израиля бурой олуши ( Sula leucogaster ). Практически все залёты (ограниченные подвидом S. l. ssp plotus ) зарегистрированы в Эйлатском заливе ^[110] . Другим видом семейства олушевых , встречающимся в период зимних кочёвок, является северная олуша ( Morus bassanus ). Этот вид регулярно наблюдается одиночными особями на Средиземном море, чаще всего вдали от берега ^[111] .

Единственным гнездящимся видом семейства чайковых в Израиле является средиземноморская чайка ( Larus michahellis ) ^[69] . Средиземноморская чайка ранее редко гнездилась отдельными парами лишь на небольших островках вдоль северного побережья Израиля, на морском побережье вдоль Кармеля и на прилегающих к морю искусственных водоёмах. В последние десятилетия наблюдается тенденция на постоянный рост численности оседлой популяции. По данным на 2014 год в Израиле насчитывалось 35-45 гнездящихся пар. В последние годы стало наблюдаться гнездование и в урбанизированной среде, в том числе и на крышах домов в Рамат-Гане и Рамат-Авиве в центре страны. При этом городская популяция превысила по численности популяцию в естественной среде обитания. Увеличился и ареал гнездования. Так, наиболее южное гнездование отмечено в Ашдоде , а наиболее удаленное от морского побережья — на прудах возле Рамлы . ^[112] . Кроме того, средиземноморская чайка является обычным пролетным и зимующим видом. Численность зимующих особей, достигающая нескольких тысяч, сильно разнится по годам, как и у других видов чаек, зимующих в Израиле. Наиболее многочисленным как на пролёте, так и на зимовке видом чаек является озёрная чайка ( Larus ridibundus ). В отдельные годы численность зимующих особей может достигать 40 тысяч ^[113]

В настоящее время единственным гнездящимся видом семейства поганковых в Израиле является малая поганка ( Tachybaptus ruficollis ), ведущая оседлый образ жизни. Часть орнитологов считает, что местная гнездящаяся популяция относится к подвиду T. r. ssp iraquensis , распространенному в Ираке, Иране и Иордании; другие относят её к номинативному подвиду T. r. ssp ruficollis , свойственному Европе и зимующему в Израиле. Гнездится в прибрежных зарослях на небольших и мелководных пресных водоёмах (в том числе искусственных), главным образом на севере страны и на Приморской низменности ^[114] . Наибольшая концентрация гнездящихся пар отмечена в Изреельской долине и в долине Хула. Общая численность гнёзд в Израиле колеблется в разные годы от 60 до 120. Численность гнездящихся пар сильно уменьшилась с 1950—1960-х годов в результате мелиоративных работ. В настоящее время главным фактором, могущим повлиять на численность успешных гнездований, является резкое контролируемое понижение уровня воды в рыбоводных прудах и прудах по очистке сточных вод. Более многочисленна на зимовке, которую предпочитает проводить на более крупных водоёмах и рыбоводных прудах. Количество зимующих птиц стабильно по годам и составляет около 1800 особей. [2] Черношейная поганка ( Podiceps nigricollis ), ранее гнездившаяся на севере Израиля, теперь наблюдается лишь как обычный, но немногочисленный пролётный и зимующий вид ^[115] . В 1969 году в последний раз в Израиле наблюдалась пара больших поганок ( Podiceps cristatus ) с выводком. Ранее десятки пар этого вида гнездились на севере Израиля в полосе зарослей жёлтой кубышки ( Núphar lútea ) в северной части озера Хула, в тростниках на юго-западе Кинерета и на заболоченных территориях, примыкающих к рекам Таниним и Полег на Приморской низменности. Сейчас вид регулярно наблюдается лишь на пролёте и зимовке ^[116] . Как редкие, залётные время от времени, виды отмечены красношейная ( Podiceps auritus ) и серощёкая ( Podiceps grisegena ) поганки ^[117] .

The crayfish group is represented in Israel by three families with seven species, six of which are nesting. Golden bee-eater ( Merops apiaster ) is the most numerous and widespread of the three species of the Israeli bee-eater family, both in flight and in nesting, although its abundance has declined significantly in recent decades ^[118] . The green bee-eater ( Merops persicus ) also became much rarer, the number of breeding pairs of which in the Jordan Valley does not exceed several dozen ^[119] . At the same time, the small green bee-eater ( Merops orientalis , in Israel, the subspecies M. o. Cyanophrys nests ), on the contrary, increases its number and range for several decades after the expansion of agriculture in arid areas ^[120] . The only representative of the syovoronovy family - the common bluefin ( Coracias garrulous ) is common in the autumn and more abundant in the spring migration and rarer in the nesting areas in the open spaces of the north and center of the country (in Israel, the subspecies C. g. Garrulous nests ). In recent decades, the number of nesting blues has declined ^[121] . Since the 30s of the last century, there has been a constant expansion of the range of red-billed alfion ( Halycon smyrnensis ) - one of the three species of the kingfisher family of Israel, which, unlike the small pied kingfisher ( Ceryle rudis ), is not so attached to fish nutrition and successfully populates the anthropogenic landscape far from water sources. On the inland waters of the country and on the coast of the seas, the common kingfisher ( Alcedo atthis ) is common on migration and rare in winter.

Two species of pigeon -like ones - the small turtledove ( Streptopelia senegalensis ) and the gray pigeon ( Columba livia , or rather, its urbanized form C. l. Var. Urbana , because the local subspecies C. l. Palaestinae became extremely rare and survived only in the Negev), are some of the most numerous birds of Israel, especially in the urban landscape. The ringed dove ( Streptopelia decaocto ), nesting throughout the country, with the exception of the most arid regions of the Negev, and the common dove ( Streptopelia turtur ), which is not nesting in Israel but common as a flying subspecies S, are somewhat inferior to them in numbers most often found outside settlements. . t. arenicola and migratory subspecies S. t. turtur . The forests of Galilee are the main wintering ground in Israel for the Wahir ( Columba palumbus ). This is a fairly common wintering species, sometimes forming large flocks. On the fly is rare. In Galilee, in 2014, the nesting of vahir in Israel was also first recorded ^[122] . The Western Negev and the Hula Valley are the main wintering grounds for the Clintuha ( Columba oenas ), a pigeon found in Israel in small quantities and rare even as a passing species ^[123] . On a narrow strip from the northern part of the Dead Sea to Eilat, a rare Cape Turret ( Oena capensis ) nests . Regular flights to Israel of a laughing dove ( Streptopelia roseogrisea ).

According to the first targeted study of the small-fry of Israel, conducted in 2008 by the Office of Nature and Parks in the south of the country, a tendency was found to reduce the number of four of the five breeding species of small-fry, from the late 80s of the 20th century. The main reasons were the intensification of agriculture and the landscaping of large tracts of loessial lands that changed their habitat in the Negev and Arava. The black-bellied grouse ( Pterocles orientalis ) population was least affected, thanks to the most extensive range in the central and northern parts of the Negev and in the Judean desert. On the contrary, the population of the once most numerous white-bellied grouse ( Pterocles alchata ) in the northern and western parts of the Negev suffered the most. The abundance of desert ( Pterocles senegalus ) and red-caped ( Pterocles coronatus ) grouse also decreased. Despite the general decline in numbers, there are still stable populations of these species in the reserves ^[124] . The study did not consider the rarest species of European marmots - Liechtenstein mumps ( Pterocles lichtensteinii ), which has only two breeding centers in Arava, whose future is threatened by the development of agriculture (population in the Neb Smadar kibbutz) and the construction of a new airport north of Eilat ^[125] . All species of hazel grouse in Israel are sedentary species ^[69] .

Of the 14 species of the wagtail family found in Israel, only three species nest in small numbers in the north and in the center of the country - the white wagtail ( Motacilla alba , the subspecies M. a. alba nests and four subspecies occur on migration and wintering), the yellow wagtail ( Motacilla flava , in Israel, the subspecies M. F. Feldegg nests and another 11 subspecies are found on migration and wintering) and the long-billed horse ( Anthus similis , in Israel the Levant subspecies A. s. Captus nests ). White wagtail is one of the most visually observed migratory species in the city. In the Hula Reserve, a program was successfully implemented to attract a white wagtail to nest in specially designed nesting houses ^[126] . Two more species of wagtails - mountain ( Motacilla cinerea ) and yellow-headed ( Motacilla citreola ), as well as eight species of skates - mountain ( Anthus spinoletta ), forest ( Anthus trivialis ), red-throated ( Anthus cervinus ), American ( Anthus rubescens ), Richard ( Anthus richardi ), spotted ( Anthus hodgsoni ), field ( Anthus campestris ) and meadow ( Anthus pratensis ) are migratory and wintering species, flying in small numbers. The Godlevsky horse ( Anthus godlewskii ) was repeatedly observed in Israel ^[69] .

Four flycatcher species are found in Israel as rare migratory species — the small flycatcher ( Ficedula parva ), the pied flycatcher ( Ficedula hypotenuse ), the semi-necked flycatcher ( Ficedula semitorquata ), and the white-necked flycatcher ( Ficedula albicollis ) ^[127] . The common gray flycatcher ( Muscicapa striata ) common in migration nests in the north and in the center of the country (subspecies M. s. Naumanni ), often in populated areas ^[128] .

Common birds in cities and rural areas in Israel are house sparrows ( Passer domesticus ) and Spanish ( Passer hispaniolensis ) sparrows, blackbird ( Turdus merula ), great tit ( Parus major ), bulbul ( Pycnonotus xanthopygos ; another nominee for the title “Israel Bird” ^[107] ), jackdaw ( Corvus monedula ), black crow ( Corvus corone cornix ), black-headed goldfinch ( Carduelis carduelis , also claiming the title of "bird of Israel" ^[107] ), greenfinch ( Carduelis chloris ) and linnet ( Carduelis cannabina ). The stone sparrow ( Petronia petronia ), common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) and finch ( Fringilla coelebs ) (nest in the autumn and winter months) are also frequent . ^[69] Near the human habitation there are hoopoe ( Upupa epops ), declared the “bird of Israel” ^[107] , and jays ( Garrulus glandarius ) ^[3] .

In 1983, in the north of Israel, two cases of nesting of the common Oriole ( Oriolus oriolus ) were first recorded. In subsequent years, an increase in the number of breeding pairs and an expansion of the nesting area were recorded. During the spring and autumn migration, the Oriole is a fairly common migratory species throughout the country ^[129] .

For desert areas, the usual bird is the desert raven ( Corvus ruficollis ). Stone partridges ( Alectoris chukar ), desert hens ( Ammoperdix heyi ) and turuchs (francolins, Francolinus francolinus ) live in the thickets of shrubs; quail ( Coturnix coturnix ), which hunting was very popular earlier, is now rare, but the Bedouins still continue to catch them with nets on the Mediterranean coast of Sinai (in Egypt) ^[3] . Avdotki ( Burhinus oedicnemus ) are also regularly found ^[69] .

Other common birds in Israel are millet ( Emberiza calandra ), Barn Swallow ( Hirundo rustica ) and African Rock Swallow ( Ptyonoprogne fuligula ), Palestinian Nectaria ( Cinnyris osea , also nominated for the “Bird of Israel” ^[107] , Mediterranean Melaka ( Sylvala ) ), Arabian thrush thimelia ( Turdoides squamiceps ), Syrian woodpecker ( Dendrocopos syriacus ), desert lark ( Ammomanes deserti ) ^[69] . The lanes ( Acridotheres tristis ), newcomers from East Asia ^{[69] [130] are} rapidly spreading throughout Israel.

In recent decades, a population of two types of parrots has appeared and is growing in the center of the country: monk parrots ( Myiopsitta monachus ) and Kramer parrots ( Psittacula krameri, drara ), the latter significantly harming agriculture. Presumably, the beginning of the populations was laid at the expense of feral domestic parrots and the “escape” of parrots from the zoo ^[131] .

The Syrian subspecies of the African ostrich (Camellus camellus ssp. Syriacus) that previously lived in the Middle East was exterminated in Palestine as a result of uncontrolled hunting back in the 1920s, and the last representatives of this subspecies were mined in Jordan and Saudi Arabia in the late 1960s years. With the creation in Arava of a nursery - reserve Hi-Bar Yotvata , the foundation was laid for the reconstruction of a population of ostriches in Israel. For this purpose, several birds from Ethiopia that were most genetically close to the extinct subspecies were brought here. Over the course of many years of breeding, a population of 50 birds has formed in the reserve. In 2005, the first group of 13 mostly young individuals was released into the wild ^[132] , but not a single bird survived: four birds were trapped on the border with Jordan, one bird was shot by an Egyptian border guard and one died for no apparent reason. And the part simply disappeared, possibly having crossed into the territory of Sinai. Considering the previous sad experience, the second group of four birds, released in 2006, included more adult individuals. But they also died, becoming a victim of predators. After that, the world's only program to recreate a population of ostriches in the wild was suspended ^[133] .

Reptiles

More than 90 species of reptiles ^[1] live in Israel, including 80 non-marine species ^[134] . 14% of reptile species are endemic to Israel (occasionally found in neighboring countries), including 6 species endemic to the northern regions of the country and 8 to the southern ^[11] .

The largest species of squamous squad in Israel is the only representative of the monitor family - the desert monitor lizard ( Varanus griseus ), which reaches one and a half meters in length and more than two kilograms of weight ^[135] . The yellow-bellied ( Ophisaurus apodus ) is a little inferior to it in length (up to 120 cm) - a legless lizard, the only species of the spindle family in Israel.

The dubb, or common thorntail ( Uromastyx aegyptius ), inhabiting the rocky deserts of the Negev , reaching a length of 75 cm and not inferior in weight to the monitor lizard, is the largest species of the agam family in Israel. Previously mined by the Bedouins because of their meat and strong skin; The eggs are also considered a delicacy among the Bedouins ^[136] . Another species of the tenon tail genus - the decorated tenon tail ( Uromastyx ornata ) - is significantly inferior in size to its congener and reaches only 35 centimeters in length. In the 80s of the 20th century, against the background of the lack of sufficiently complete information about the state of the species in the area of ​​its range, limited to the Eilat Mountains in Israel, young individuals were caught here caught on the Sinai Peninsula , which, possibly as a result of mixing of two populations, led to the spread among a decorated tenon of a previously unknown skin disease. This disease, as well as the ongoing trapping of decorated tenon tails by poachers for sale to terrariums and the pressure from a growing number of tourists, led to the need to take protection as endangered ^[137] .

Asian mountain agamas are represented in Israel by one species - the stellion ( Stellagama stellio ), which is widespread throughout the camp in rocky areas and has the same dimensions as the decorated thorntail; representatives of this species are often killed due to superstitious fears ^[11] . In Israel, there are two subspecies of this species - the darker and smaller in size Stellagama stellio ssp. picea inhabiting the northern part of the country, and the lighter and larger southern subspecies Stellagama stellio brachydactyla ^[138] . Other representatives of the agamic species are two species of the flat agamic species — the agamic Savigny ( Trapelus savignii ), whose population is threatened by the intensive development of its natural biotope — sand deserts — for construction and agriculture ^[139] , and Trapelus agnetae (synonymous with pallidus ), as well as the Sinai agama ( Pseudotrapelus sinaitus ) is a representative of the monotypic genus Pseudotrapelus . All three species are characteristic of desert and semi-desert regions of the country ^[11] .

While one of the two subspecies of an ordinary chameleon is Chamaeleo chamaeleon ssp. recticrista is a member of the chameleon family common in Israel; its other subspecies is Chamaeleo chamaeleon ssp. musae , which inhabits the sand dunes of the northwest Negev in Israel and is found only on the Sinai Peninsula , is at risk of extinction due to the intensive development of the desert for agriculture and the extensive development of dunes for the extraction of building sand. Most of the range of this subspecies in Israel is located on the territory of army training grounds, which does not contribute to its conservation ^[140]

Tropiocolotes nattereri is the only representative of the genus of tropicolots, or dwarf geckos in Israel ^[141] , reaching only six centimeters in length, is the smallest representative of scaly in the country ^{[135] [142]} . Inhabiting the desert regions of the south of the country, he shares the biotope with other representatives of the gecko family, among which the narrow-toed narrow-toed gecko Stenodactylus sthenodactylus (7-8 cm) is closest in size, which, however, penetrates far north, reaching Haifa and the Jordan Valley . Two other species of this genus - the Egyptian narrow-toed gecko Stenodactylus petrii (in Israel is a vulnerable species ^[143] ) and the Iraqi narrow-toed gecko Stenodactylus doriae (the Israeli population is on the verge of extinction ^[144] ) are larger and live only in sandy deserts ^[11] .

The most common and recognizable species of Israeli geckos is the Turkish half-toed gecko ( Hemidactylus turcicus ), which is found throughout the country and in any biotopes ^[145] . Предполагается, что этот геккон упоминается в Библии как анака ^[146] . Пятнистый вееропалый геккон ( Ptyodactylus guttatus ) распространен от Кармеля и до Эйлата, где встречается и вееропалый геккон Хассельквиста ( Ptyodactylus hasselquistii ), ограниченный ареал которого (включающий помимо Эйлатских гор только юг долины Арава и представляющий северную границу распространения вида) делает его уязвимым главным образом из-за незаконного отлова для продажи террариумистам ^[147] . Голаны , Галилею и север Иорданской долины (до Ашкелона на юге) населяет Ptyodactylus puiseuxi (известный как левантийский или израильский вееропалый геккон, а в самом Израиле — как галилейский геккон), встречающийся, как и другие виды рода, не только в расселинах скал, но и в пустотах и прочих подходящих для жизни местах в деревянных домах ^[148] .

Два из трех видов рода тонкопалых гекконов имеют в Израиле очень ограниченный ареал. Cyrtopodion amictopholis , находящийся под угрозой исчезновения ввиду интенсификации туризма, строительства военной инфраструктуры в районе обитания и незаконной торговли редкими видами животных, возможно, является эндемиком Хермона , где населяет расселины скал на высоте от 1300 метров и выше ^[149] , а Cyrtopodion scabrum впервые зарегистрирован в Израиле лишь в 1989 году в районе Эйлата и, вероятно, находится в стадии инвазии ^[11] . Третий вид — средиземноморский геккон Cyrtopodion kotschyi (сейчас включаемый в род средиземноморских тонкопалых гекконов Mediodactylus ) — ведёт древесный образ жизни на приморской полосе от ливанской границы до Ашкелона.

The most common of the 8 species of the Israeli skink family is ocular chalcid ( Chalcides ocellatus ), which is found throughout the country. While populations of ophthalmic chalcide in Israel are not threatened at this time, the future of the second species of the genus of chalcides - Chalcides guentheri , whose southwestern boundary of the world range passes through Israel - is under threat. The greatest danger is the population that inhabits the coastal strip along the Mediterranean Sea, due to urbanization of the territory and the disappearance of habitats ^[150] . The largest of the Israeli skinks - the long-legged skink ( Eumeces schneideri ) - reaches a length of 50 centimeters. Its northern subspecies is Eumeces schneideri ssp. pavimentatus - inhabits all types of soil except for sand dunes from Dimona to the northern border of Israel, preferring rocky areas overgrown with low shrubs, but does not avoid settling on cultivated land and near human habitation. A rarer southern subspecies is Eumeces schneideri ssp. schneideri - inhabits arid regions from the northern Negev to Eilat ^[151] . Any kind of soil, except sand, is also suitable for the Egyptian mabue ( Trachylepis vittata ), which is widespread in Israel from Hermon to the Northern Negev ^[152] . This leading daily skink is most often observed during hunting literally sliding between the crevices of stones. The pharmacy, or ordinary skink ( Scincus scincus ), in which the shiny color of the upper body varies from yellow-sandy to brownish-yellow or orange, is most brightly colored. The bottom of the body is white or ivory. Adult individuals have dark transverse spots on the back and tail, creating a striped pattern. The elongated upper jaw, which prevents sand from entering the mouth during underground hunting, makes it look like a miniature crocodile. He leads a daily life, hunting for various insects in the afternoon and early evening hours, both on the surface and underground, hiding from the heat of the day in the thickness of sand. Dried meat of a pharmaceutical skink has long been used in folk medicine for the treatment of a wide variety of diseases ^[153] , and is also still included in the Bedouin diet ^[154] . In Israel, the species inhabits the sands of the northern Negev, which are the northeastern border of the subspecies Scincus scincus ssp. scincus . The Israeli population is considered vulnerable mainly due to the location of large sandy areas within military training grounds, their development for sand pits and the construction of desalination plants in the dune zone near the sea coast ^[155] .

The smallest representative of the skink in the fauna of Israel is the species of the hologlase genus Ablepharus rueppellii , whose adult length is only 1.7-4.5 cm from the nose to the base of the tail ^[156] , with a tail up to 10 cm ^[157] . Two subspecies of this species live from the borders with Lebanon and to the central Negev. The largest part of the range is inhabited by the subspecies Ablepharus rueppellii ssp. rueppellii , which, as a habitat, prefers clusters of fallen leaves and stones, but has recently been discovered in the dunes of the West Negev ^[156] . On the Golan plateau and on Hermon, the subspecies Ablepharus rueppellii ssp. festae , outside of them found only in a limited territory in Jordan; the total range of the subspecies does not exceed 1200 km² ^[158] . Due to its extremely secretive way of life, the rare and poorly studied species of skinks is the serpent lizard Latasta ( Ophiomorus latastii ), the only representative of the serpentine lizard genus, rarely reaching 20 centimeters in Israel and is known from 14 isolated populations. A distinctive feature of the species is the absence of legs, which makes its representatives look like small snakes. A rare opportunity to see this skink, mainly leading an underground lifestyle, most often appears in nature on the ruins of settlements, where it glides along the grooves between stones in search of insects ^[159] . The nocturnal wedge-headed skink ( Sphenops sepsoides ) exclusively inhabits the sands of the northwestern Negev, Arava and the dunes of the Mediterranean coast of Israel to the north to Atlit . This skink, of sand color and of medium size (up to 20 cm, of which half falls on the tail), gradually disappears from the small sand massifs of the central Negev, probably due to their isolation from the main range. His cylindrical body with short, thin and weak legs with tiny fingers along with a zigzag movement makes him, like Latasta the serpent lizard, similar to a small snake.

Crested lizards ( Acanthodactylus ) - medium-sized (13 to 25 cm) day-old lizards - inhabit the sandy and loessial soils of the Negev and Arava in Israel, penetrating north along the dunes of the Mediterranean coast of Israel to Rishon Lezion . The number of species represented in Israel is changing as a result of the revision of the genus taxonomy. Thus, DNA analysis of lizards belonging to the species Acanthodactylus boskianus (in Israel, the subspecies Acanthodactylus boskianus ssp. Asper is common) and Acanthodactylus schreiberi (in Israel there is a subspecies Acanthodactylus schreiberi ssp. Syriacus ), based on the assumption that only both species are actually subspecies of one of them, gave confirming results. Data were also obtained on the genetic difference between the Israeli population of Acanthodactylus boskianus and the rest of the world population. In addition, as a result of checking scientific collections, it was found that some of the specimens previously assigned to the species Acanthodactylus boskianus belong to the species Acanthodactylus opheodurus described in 1980 ^[160] . The main part of the range of this species in Israel is in the sands of Arava. Representatives of the species also inhabit the sands in the area of Dimona and the kibbutz Revivim . Judging by recent studies, Israeli lizards, previously classified as Acanthodactylus longipes , are attributed to the recently (2007) isolated independent species Acanthodactylus aegyptius . These small and mobile lizards that inhabit the sands of the western Negev share them with outwardly similar representatives of the species Acanthodactylus scutellatus (represented in Israel by the nominative subspecies Acanthodactylus scutellatus ssp. Scutellatus ).

Three species of crested lizards are listed in the Red Book of Israel. The condition of the species Acanthodactylus aegyptius is considered vulnerable . Populations of two of the six species of the genus — found, apart from Israel, only in Lebanon Acanthodactylus schreiberi and Beersheva crested lizards endemic for Israel ( Acanthodactylus beershebensis ) are in critical condition ^{[161] [162]} . The Beershevsky crested lizard is a slowly moving (unlike other members of the genus) reptile, which was first described as a separate species in 1999 from a copy from Wadi Yatir east of Beer Sheva. This species was formerly one of the most widespread on loessial soils of the northern Negev and the south of the Judean Desert, but with the beginning of intensive development of these areas, the territory it inhabited decreased by more than 90%. Currently, only small isolated populations have survived, the total area of ​​which is now about 200 km² ^[162] .

In the branches of shrubs or on tree trunks not far from the ground during the daytime, you can see a slender snake-head ( Ophisops elegans) hunting in Israel; in Israel there is a subspecies Ophisops elegans ssp. Ehrenbergi ) - a small (up to 20 cm long) lizard that inhabits the Mediterranean coast of Israel to the border with the desert. Isolated populations of this species exist in the central Negev, where they prefer to settle in the thickets of spiny shrubs of the species Sarcopoterium spinosum . This is one of the few species of lizards found in settlements ^[163] .

It was previously believed that the genus Phoenicolacerta is represented in Israel by two subspecies of the same species Phoenicolacerta laevis , but later the point of view according to which they are two different species - Phoenicolacerta laevis and Phoenicolacerta kulzeri, gained popularity . The subspecies Phoenicolacerta kulzeri kulzeri , known in Israel as the Hermon lizard, is extremely rare in this country, found only on Hermon at altitudes of 1,500 meters above sea level. The species is threatened with extinction - its entire world range is limited to 500 km² in Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan, and since the species lives in the mountains, individual populations are cut off from one another. Included in the International Red Book and the Red Book of Israel ^[164] . The species Phoenicolacerta laevis (the nominative subspecies Phoenicolacerta laevis laevis ), inhabiting the central and northern parts of the country, is a common but not numerous species often found in settlements ^[165] .

Among the reptiles living in Israel, forty-one species of snakes, nine of them are poisonous. The most common species among them are the Werner Palestinian viper ( Vipera palaestinae ) and efa ( Echis colorata ). Other types of vipers are less common, in the south, due to the expansion of agricultural land, the range of black cobra ( Walterinnesia aegyptia ) is also expanding. Lizard snake ( Malpolon monspessulanus ), whose poison is not dangerous for humans, is sometimes found in built-up areas ^[3] .

The predominantly underground life is carried out by 2 species of snakes from the family of blind snakes, similar to large worms - the common blind snake ( Typhlops vermicularis ) and Letheobia simonii , a species described by the holotype from Haifa ^[166] and endemic to Israel and Jordan ^[167] (and also, probably , for Syria ^[168] ) - and one species of the family of narrow-snakes - Myriopholis macrorhynchus , the largest in the family, reaching 25 cm in length. Occasionally, they can be found in the daytime on the surface of the earth engaged in hunting insects, which are the basis of their food ^[169] .

Western boa constrictor ( Eryx jaculus ) is the only representative of the family of pseudopods, or boa constrictors in Israel. This non-toxic snake, the average length of which is about 60 cm (maximum - up to 80 cm), preys on small birds, rodents and reptiles, strangling them in a manner characteristic of boas ^[170] .

The subfamily of real snakes is represented in Israel by 20 widespread species, most of which are often found in various plantings of settlements in search of rodents and birds. This behavior is characterized, in particular, by the largest snake in Israel - the snake Dolichophis jugularis (in Israel the subspecies D. jugularis ssp. Asianus lives ). These snakes reach a length of 2.4 m (outside Israel up to 3 m) and weigh up to 2 kg. Dolichophis jugularis killing rodents the size of a rat benefits agriculture ^[171] . In Israel, the north-western border of the world range of one of the most beautiful snakes in the country passes - the most elegant snake ( Platyceps elegantissimus ). This serpentine, which has a contrasting yellow-black color and reaches 60 cm in length, was first discovered in Arava in 1953. The species is listed in the Red Book of Israel: the exact size of its population is unknown, but the limited range of the Israeli range only to the southern part of Arava, intensively developed for agriculture, can lead to the extinction of the species from the fauna of Israel ^[172] . For two other species of snakes listed in the Red Book of Israel, the region of Eilat and southern Arava is the northern boundary of the range. This is Psammophis aegyptius , whose existence in Israel is threatened by continued pollution of the dried up river beds - its usual habitat ^[173] ; and Platyceps sinai (formerly known as Coluber sinai ^[174] ), which until the 90s was considered endemic to the Sinai Peninsula. The Platyceps sinai specimens found in Israel were erroneously classified as individuals of the most elegant snake ^[175] .

If the previous two species are found in the southern regions of the country, then Eirenis levantinus and the multi-colored snake ( Hemorrhois ravergieri ), on the contrary, are inhabitants of its north - the latter was generally observed only twice in Israel, both times on Mount Hermon. Israel, apparently, is the southernmost of the countries where these species are distributed ^[176] . Two types of climbing snakes are included in the Israeli Red Book: the four - lane Elaphe quatuorlineata (in Israel there is a subspecies of E. quatuorlineata sauromates ) and the Transcaucasian Zamenis hohenackeri (represented by the subspecies Z. hohenackeri taurica ); for both species, Israel (Hermon and the Golan Plateau) represents the southern boundary of the range ^[177]

Closer to the Mediterranean coast there are turtles : Mediterranean ( Testudo graeca , including the endemic subspecies Testudo graeca floweri ^[11] ), Caspian tortoise ( Mauremys caspica ), African trionyx ( Trionyx triunguis ) and green or soup ( Chelonia mydas ) In the Negev there is a species of the Egyptian tortoise Testudo werneri , which is very few in Israel (according to the estimates of the 80s, 4-5 specimens per km²) and which is at risk of extinction ^[178] . The Red -eared Turtle ( Trachemys scripta ) imported from America is rapidly spreading ^[130] . On the shores of Eilat, baby bis- turtles ( Eretmochelys imbricata ) are hatched ^[1] . Alligators and other species of crocodiles ( Nile , caimans , gavials ) are also bred on special farms for commercial purposes ^[179] .

Researchers at the Israel Conservation Society of Israel indicate that three species of reptiles are extinct in Israel: the Nile crocodile, Gyurza ( Macrovipera lebetina ) and the European marsh turtle ( Emys orbicularis ) ^[11] .

Amphibians

Over the past century, the numbers and ranges of amphibians in Israel have been severely affected. Among the main reasons for this process are reclamation of wetlands, changes in the hydrological regime of water sources and pollution of biotopes. As a result of human economic activity, isolated areas were formed, which interferes with normal genetic exchange in the population. Other possible threats to native species are the collection by terrarium workers and the illegal trade in rare species. In recent years, there has been a danger of influencing the local population of amphibian introduced species that can both create competition for the native in the process of obtaining food and breeding, and introduce diseases unknown to local species ^[180] . Currently, Israel is aware of the successful introduction of a smooth Spur frog ( Xenopus laevis ), an African species brought to Israel for laboratory purposes and trapped in water bodies in the north of the country ^[181] .

In the most complete list of Israel’s amphibian species on the site of the Israeli Society for the Conservation of Nature at the beginning of the 21st century, there were six species (for four of which the southern border of their world range passed through this country) and one extinct black-bellied disco-speaking frog ^[180] , but since Finds have been made of publications that have expanded the list of living Israeli species to eight. In 2013, the AmphibiaWeb database generates a list of 11 species for Israel ^[182] , three of which are possibly synonymous for others ( Hyla felixarabica and Hyla arborea for H. savignyi ^{[183] [184]} , and Pelophylax ridibundus for P. bedriagae ^[180] ).

An Israeli black-bellied frog-frog , or Israeli decorated frog ( Latonia nigriventer ), endemic to Israel, belonging to the family of round - tailed squad of tailless amphibians , was first discovered on the east coast of Lake Hula in 1940 ^[185] . Since 1996, it has been officially considered extinct, because no reports of a meeting with it have been received since 1955. However, in November 2011, several individuals of this species were captured in the Hula Reserve ^[186] . After studying the frogs were returned to their native environment. According to experts, the population is estimated at 100-200 individuals. Initially, the species was assigned to the genus Discoglossus, but after additional studies it was established that it belongs to the genus Latonia , which divided with the genus Discoglossus about 32 million years ago. Other representatives of the genus are known only for fossils from Europe 15 thousand years ago, which makes the black-bellied disco-speaking frog a living fossil ^[187] .

In addition to the black-bellied disco-speaking frog, the order of tailless amphibians in Israel is represented by several more families. The family of the garlic is one species - the Syrian garlic ( Pelobates syriacus , the nominative subspecies Pelobates s. Ssp syriacus lives in Israel), the range of which has moved north from Gaza to the area of ​​the city of Holon over the past decades. Accordingly, the southern border of the world range of this species, passing through Israel, also moved to the north ^[188] . The only species of the family of real frogs in Israel is the most numerous amphibian species of this country - the Levantine frog ( Rana ( Pelophylax ) levantina ), which in the past was considered as a species of lake frog ^[180] . One species, the green toad ( Pseudepidalea viridis ), also represents the toad family ^[189] . Some researchers attribute the Israeli population to other species - Pseudepidalea variabilis or Pseudepidalea boulengeri ^[190] .

Two species belong to the tree frog family - Hyla savignyi (previously considered as a subspecies of the common tree frog Hyla arborea ) ^[184] and the tree frog Steinitz ( Hyla heinzsteinitzi ), described as a new species in 2007 after the publication of the list of the Conservation Society. This new species is named after the oldest Israeli marine biologist and herpetologist, head of the Department of Zoology at Hebrew University, Professor Heinz Steinitz. Being an endemic of Israel, this species is known only from three water sources in the Judean mountains - Ein Farah, Wadi Motz and the Mamil reservoir in Jerusalem ^[191] .

The family of salamander tailed amphibians is represented in Israel by two species. The first of these is Salamandra infraimmaculata (according to another classification, used by Israeli amphibian specialist Sarig Hafni, this species is a subspecies of the fire salamander Salamandra salamandra infraimmaculata ^[192] ). The second type of Israeli tailed amphibian is the Asia Minor Triton ( Ommatotriton vittatus ; in Israel, the subspecies Ommatotriton v. Vittatus lives, the threat of the population of which has increased sharply in recent years due to a reduction in habitat by 70% ^[193] ).

One of Israel’s obligations under the international Convention on Biological Diversity, ratified by the government in 1995, is the conservation of species habitats. For amphibians in Israel, this is especially true for rainwater bodies of water - a special ecological environment that forms in deepenings of soil of natural or artificial origin and is filled with water during rains ^[194] . Dry ponds that dry up with the onset of the dry period are a breeding medium for many species of amphibians in Israel. In recent decades, mainly as a result of human economic activity, the number of rainwater bodies has sharply decreased, which has led to a decrease in the number of amphibians. As a result, there was a threat of extinction for six species of amphibians in Israel ^[4] , which forced the government to take urgent measures to preserve them. In 1994, a five-year plan was developed, within the framework of which 60 new rainwater reservoirs were to be created in nature reserves in addition to the largest and most important for reproduction amphibious rainwater reservoirs in the country ^[195] .

Pisces

The coral reefs of the Red Sea off the coast of Eilat provide shelter for numerous species of fish. According to estimates provided by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Eilat Reef ecosystem has 1270 species of fish belonging to 157 families (of which 190 species are endemic to Israel and its immediate vicinity ^[2] ), hundreds of coral species and 1120 species of mollusks ^[1] . The ichthyofauna of the Red Sea, in different geological and historical periods associated with the Mediterranean, is often found off the Mediterranean coast of Israel, sometimes making up, according to the 1980s, more than forty percent of the catch. Among the Red Sea species represented today in the Mediterranean Sea, about 50 species of fish (as well as 90 species of mollusks and 40 species of crustaceans) ^[196] . A number of fish species in Mediterranean waters are of interest for commercial fishing; for example, in 2005, Israeli fishermen in the Mediterranean Sea caught more than 270 tons of Chinese lakedra ( Seriola dumerili ), about 260 tons of barbara and about 170 tons of round sardinella ( Sardinella aurita ) ^[197] , which is also the main commercial fish in the Gaza Strip ^{[ 198]} . On the farms specializing in the cultivation of marine fish, more than three thousand tons of dorados were grown over the same year ^[197] .

According to Professor Menachem Goren (Tel Aviv University), the ichthyofauna of the inland waters of Israel is represented by thirty-two indigenous species of fish of eight families and 14-16 introduced ^[199] . The geographical location of the country at the junction of the continents facilitated the penetration of species typical of the African continent, the Mediterranean basin and the Red Sea basin, as well as the Levant and Central Asia, which settled three different water basins with twelve distinct ecosystems (in addition to three geologically determined basins, one more - the Yarkon River basin - can be distinguished based on the analysis of aquatic fauna ^[200] ). 12 fish species are endemic to these pools, three of them have become extinct since the middle of the last century. The richest species are the ichthyofauna of the Jordan River Valley — 26 species — and the Sea of ​​Galilee with 19 species ^[201] . Based on the information provided by the FishBase database, a list of 66 freshwater fish species found in Israel is generated, of which 36 are indigenous ^[202] .

Of the 13 species of African cichlids of the genus Sarotherodon, only one nominative subspecies of mango tilapia ( Sarotherodon galilaeus ) is the Galilean tilapia Sarotherodon galilaeus ssp. galilaeus (the unofficial name of which is “St. Peter's fish” connects it with the plot of the Gospel ) is peculiar to the Levant and inhabits the basin of the Jordan River, the rivers of the Mediterranean basin of Israel and the Sea of ​​Galilee . Galilean tilapia remains one of Israel's main commercial fish, despite a drop in annual catch from more than 300 tons in 2005 ^[197] to 40 tons according to 2007 data ^[203] . In recent years, the state has taken measures to restore Galilean tilapia and other species of commercial fish of Kineret, up to the complete prohibition of commercial fishing in 2010-12 ^[204] and for 60 days in 2013 during spawning in the northern part of the lake ^[205] . Millions of fry of this species are launched annually into the lake from the hatchery of the kibbutz Ginosar , and exclusively from fish roe of the local Kineret population ^[203] . The Levantine-specific genus of cichlids Tristramella includes the Tristramella sacra species endemic to Israel in Lake Kineret (sources differ in assessing the status of the species - the FishBase database defines it as being on the verge of extinction ^[206] , and the Red Book suggests that it is complete extinction ^[207] ), as well as a special subspecies of the species Tristramella simonis - T. s. intermedia , one of the endemic species of Lake Hula that has disappeared as a result of its drainage ^[201] . Another subspecies of Tristramella simonis is T. s. simonis - is a common fish for Kinneret. Единственным из восьми видов ещё одного свойственного Африке рода цихлид Astatotilapia , проникшим на Евразийский континент, является Astatotilapia flaviijosephi , в Израиле населяющая каменистые мелководья реки Иордан, источников в долине Бейт-Шеана и озера Кинерет. Ввиду небольшой численности вида, раздробленности его ареала, загрязнения среды обитания и влияния на популяцию изменений в гидрологическом режиме существует опасность его вымирания ^[208] . Широко распространённый в Африке род тиляпия представлен единственным видом — Tilapia zillii , населяющим в Израиле не только типичный для вида биотоп — пресные воды, но и малосолёные устья рек в местах впадения их в Средиземное море и даже солёную морскую воду, создав небольшие, но устойчивые популяции ^[200] .

Для ихтиофауны Израиля были эндемичны, в дополнение к уже перечисленным, ещё несколько видов и подвидов пресноводных рыб, исчезнувших в результате мелиорации. Примерами таких видов могут служить Oxynoemacheilus galilaeus и Mirogrex hulensis , бывшие эндемиками озера Хула ^[201] . Принадлежавший к семейству карповых Mirogrex hulensis был описан как отдельный вид в 1973 году, а последняя встреча с ним в природе датируется 1975 годом, на основании чего вид считается вымершим ^[209] . Исчезнувший в Израиле после осушения озера Хула Oxynoemacheilus galilaeus из семейства балиториевых сохраняется в единственном месте вне Израиля — в озере Музайриб в Сирии, где его популяция находится в критическом состоянии из-за отвода воды ^[210] Другим вымирающим эндемиком Израиля является ярконский колючий лещ ( Acanthobrama telavivensis ), чьё существование поставлено под угрозу пересыханием прибрежных израильских рек; сейчас ведутся работы по спасению вида и возвращению его в естественную среду ^[211] . Эндемичен для Израиля также впервые описанный в 1982 году Nemacheilus dori — небольшая, длиной несколько сантиметров, рыбка из семейства балиториевых. Весь мировой ареал этого вида изначально был сосредоточен на площади менее 100 м² в долине Бейт-Шеана ^[212] , в источнике Эйн-Малкоах ^[201] , территория которого была объявлена в 1990 году особо охраняемым заповедником. В целях сохранения этого вида часть особей была переселена в источник на территории заповедника Тель-Саарон ^[213] . Общая численность данного вида, находящегося под угрозой исчезновения, составляет около 250 взрослых особей ^[212] . Эндемична для Кинерета также Acanthobrama terraesanctae (кинеретская сардинка, старое название Mirogrex terraesanctae ^[214] ) — популярная промысловая рыба; в 2005 году в озере Кинерет было выловлено около 560 тонн рыбы этого вида ^[197] .

В Израиле предпринимаются усилия по сохранению пресноводной ихтиофауны. 120 заповедников и национальных парков общей площадью 2000 квадратных километров включают в себя болота и приморские районы. Условия обитания редких и малочисленных видов взяты под контроль и сохраняются. Среди видов, среда обитания которых находится под охраной, — Nemachelius dori (долина Бейт-Шеана), Nemacheilus panthera ( Голанские высоты ) и Garra ghorensis (пресноводные источники в южной части Мёртвого моря, заповедник Неот Ха-Кикар) ^[201] .

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Членистоногие

В Израиле насчитывается более 20 тысяч видов насекомых ^[2] . Особенно многочисленны саранчовые ( Acridoidea ), иногда наносящие серьёзный вред сельскому хозяйству. Широко представлены сверчковые ( Grylloidea ) и клопы ( Heteroptera ). В Израиле водятся три вида тараканов ( Blattoidea ) и более десяти видов богомолов ( Mantodea ). Израильский сухой и жаркий климат обеспечивает разнообразие видов жесткокрылых (жуков). Многие виды жесткокрылых Израиля являются вредителями сельского хозяйства. К их числу принадлежат златки , наносящие вред плодовым деревьям; поражающие древесину (в том числе мебель) точильщики ; портящие продуктовые запасы чернотелки и кожееды ; и наносящие вред различным отраслям полеводства и садоводства усачи и долгоносики . Широко представлены жужелицы ( Carabidae ), карапузики ( Histeridae ) и пластинчатоусые ( Scarabaedia ), в частности, хрущи ( Melolonthinae ) ^[3] .

В Израиле можно встретить как певчих цикад ( Cicadidae ), так и представителей других семейств подотряда Auchenorrhyncha , в том числе разнообразных тлей ( Aphidoidea ) ^[3] .

About 140 diurnal lepidoptera species are registered in Israel, representing 5 families, most of which (about 100 species) are characteristic of the Palearctic region , about 25 tropical species and 15 desert ones. The region adjacent to Mount Hermon is the richest in butterfly species (about 100 species). The farther south and lower the area, the less species diversity there is. So, in the Upper Galilee there are already 75, in the Judean Mountains - 65, in the region of Mount Carmel - 55, in the coastal valleys of Sharon and Shfela, about 40, about 30 species in the Be'er Sheva region and only 25 in Arava and Eilat , which is probably , due to the greater diversity of plant species and the duration of their vegetative period in cooler areas of the country ^[215] . Since 2009, 14 species of day butterflies are protected by law ^[216] . The largest day butterflies in Israel are 8 species of sailboats , among which 3 species of true sailboats , 2 species of the genus Allancastria , podalirium ( Iphiclides podalirius ), mnemosyne ( Parnassius mnemosynne ), and one species of the genus Archon ^[217] . The greatest number of species is represented by lycaenidae and nymphalids (47 and 37 species, respectively). Belyanks (represented by 26 species) and thick-headed animals (23 species) are very numerous. Two species of nymphalids of Israel are characterized by seasonal migrations. The most massive is spring migration from south to north of the Danidae chrysippus (Danaus chrysippus) , in some years reaching millions of individuals. Visually less pronounced is the flight of a burdock woman, or Vanessa thistle (Vanessa cardui), one of the spring migration routes of which from Africa to Europe passes through Israel ^[218] .

Israel’s nocturnal butterflies are numerous and diverse, among them peacock-eye (the largest butterfly of Israel and Europe - the pear-eye of Pear Saturnia pyri ^[219] - and the peacock-eye of the Galilee, the blind-eyed Perisomena caecigena ^[220] ), moths ( Sphingidae ), including a dead head ( Acherontia atropos ), scoops ( Noctuidae ), bagpipes ( Lymantriidae ), marching silkworms ( Thaumetopea ) ^[3] . In Israel, rare Middle Eastern butterfly species can be found: Melitaea arduinna , Tomares nesimachus ^[221] , Apharitis cilissa (considered to have disappeared in Israel, was discovered again in the early 1990s ^[222] ), Olepa schleini (endemic to the coastal areas of Israel ^[223] ) . In total, about 10% of the butterfly species registered here are protected by law in Israel ^[221] .

Hymenoptera in Israel is represented by wasps , both single ( Eumenidae ) and public , including the largest - hornets ( Vespa ), whose bite can be dangerous to humans. Israeli honeybees belonging to a breed imported from Italy differ from the local Syrian variety in higher productivity ^[3] . For bees, an exception is made to the rules of kashrut: usually, if an animal is not kosher, then everything it produces (milk, eggs or caviar) is also forbidden to eat. But the products of the activity of bees (which are themselves not kosher), primarily honey, are allowed for consumption ^[20] .

According to the list of species of the family of ants of Israel published in 2009, 241 species and subspecies of these insects were registered in 46 genera of 11 subfamilies. 25 taxa are endemic to Israel, and another 24 species and subspecies are found only in Israel and neighboring countries (Lebanon, Syria, Jordan or Egypt), that is, the degree of endemism is about 20% - a level comparable only with the endemism of local freshwater fish and higher than in other groups of vertebrates or in coleopterans ^[224] .

The fauna of the mealybugs from the order of Hemoptera is fairly well studied in Israel, represented by 166 species from 13 families, of which 24 species (including all seven species of the genus Kermes ) are endemic. All worms feed on plant sap, some of the Israeli species are pests of agriculture and forestry nationwide ^[225] . Another aphids of the Hemiformes widely represented in Israel are aphids - 194 species in 2 families: phylloxera (5 species) and true aphids (189 species) ^[226]

Long-winged dipterans are represented by various species of mosquitoes ( Phlebotominae ) and mosquitoes ( Culicidae ). The first are carriers of fever pappatachi and leishmaniasis . Mosquitoes suffer West Nile fever , and before the drainage of the swamps they were also carriers of malaria , which is now completely eradicated in Israel. Horseflies ( Tabanidae ), gastric gadfly ( Gasterophilidae ) and numerous species of true flies ( Muscidae ) are common among short-winged dipterans . Some species of grouses ( Syrphidae ) benefit agriculture, as their larvae eat aphids ^[3] .

The Israel Spider Directory published in 2013 lists 631 species and subspecies from 49 families. For 280 species, Israel is a type locality (that is, their type specimens are found on its territory). The level of regional endemism is 37%. The largest number of species are represented by the families of gnaphosides (126) and horse-riding spiders (108). According to the authors of the catalog, Sergey Zonshtein and Yuri Marusik, about 300-400 species of spiders, unknown to science or found in neighboring countries, can be found in this country ^[227] . An example of a recently discovered species is the species Cerbalus aravaensis , found in the sand dunes of Smadar on the border between Israel and Jordan in Arava, which leads a nocturnal lifestyle and previously unknown to science. With a foot span of 14 cm, this species is the largest spider known in the Middle East ^[228] . The danger to humans is represented by the bites of only two types of Israeli spiders - karakurt and Loxosceles rufescens ^[3] .

Israeli hayers , a detachment from the arachnid class, are not well understood. According to the latest data, 15 species of these arthropods are known in Israel, and two of them have been discovered recently ^[229] .

Of the arachnids, scorpions should also be distinguished, of which there are 17 species and subspecies in Israel, the most dangerous of which is the yellow scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus , otherwise known as the Israeli desert scorpion . Only 5 species are very dangerous and poisonous ^[3] .

Of the nine species of the false scorpion order endemic to Israel (represented by 11 families with 25 genera and 41 species ^[230] ), Ayyalonia dimentmani is of the greatest interest. This pseudo-scorpion, first discovered in Ayalon karst cave (near the town of Ramla ) in 2006, which had existed before this for millions of years in a separate cave ecosystem in complete darkness, lost pigmentation, the ability to see and switched to eating bacteria, was isolated as a separate monotypic genus Ayyalonia in isolated tribe Ayyaloniini ^[231] . Ayyalonia dimentmani is one of eight relict arthropod species discovered in Ayalon Cave in 2006. All these species, according to researchers, have developed in isolation over millions of years, and all eight have no eyes ^[232] .

Of the crustaceans of Israel, two endemic relict species of freshwater shrimp of the Tiphlocaris genus deserve special attention. Tiphlocaris galilea (known in Israel as summarizing ha-Galil - the Galilean shrimp), which lives in the source of Ein Nur in the monastery in Tabgha in northern Israel, is on the verge of extinction as a result of the diversion of the stream for the needs of the monastery, which affects the unique chemical composition of water and its temperature. In order to preserve this unique species, in 2013, 20 adult Galilean shrimp were brought to the Bible Zoo in Jerusalem for the purpose of captive breeding and subsequent return to nature ^[233] . The second species, Tiphlocaris ayyaloni , was one of the relict arthropod species discovered in 2006 in Ayalon Cave ^[234] . Both species have a translucent body and are devoid of eyes.

Also endemic to Israel are three species of amphipods living in freshwater streams in the Dead Sea - Bogidiella copia , Habraeobogidiela bromleyana and Metacrangonyx ortali ^{[235] [236]} .

Mollusks

Of the almost two thousand species of mollusks that live in the seas washing Israel, Murex trunculus should be distinguished. This species was used in antiquity in the Land of Israel for the extraction of a natural dye of saturated blue color ( thelet , Hebrew. תְּכֵלֶת ). Thelet was used for dyeing festive garments and Jewish prayer covers ( Talit ). For a long time, the secret of making telet was considered lost, and various sources put forward their versions about which mollusks it was extracted from; in the end, the point of view prevailed, justified in the middle of the 19th century by Henri Lacaz-Duthier and defended by Rabbi Isaac Herzog ^[237] . Production technology was re-developed in the 1980s by Israeli chemists Ehud Spanier and Otto Elsner . In recent decades, this dye is again produced in limited quantities ^[238] .

As a person settled in the territory of modern Israel, he exerted an increasing influence on the wildlife of the country, which was not limited to the extermination of large species of animals and agricultural pests. New species of animals were also imported into the country, both for agricultural needs and as decorative animals. Some of these species subsequently formed self-sufficient populations in the country. Currently, researchers at Tel Aviv University within the country have 22 invasive species of terrestrial vertebrates; this list includes two species of mammals ( Indian palm squirrel Funambulus pennantii and nutria ), two species of reptiles (the already mentioned red-eared turtle, as well as the Egyptian blue-footed gecko , Cyrtopodion scaber ) and 18 species of birds, among which, in addition to the aforementioned monk parrots, parrots Cramer and lane, such large species as the white- headed pintail ( Anas bahamensis ), the Nile goose ( Alopochen aegyptiacus ) and the brilliant raven ( Corvus splendens ). Small turtledove introduced by the Turks in the 19th century ( Spilopelia senegalensis , several hundred thousand individuals live in the country) and the Malabar Amadina ( Lonchura malabarica ) that entered Israel in the 1980s are widespread ^{[131] [239]} . 12 introduced species of birds are among the pests of agriculture, four of them (in particular, the shiny raven and lane) threaten local species; the nutria is also a pest, and the red-eared turtle may compete with native species ^[131] . In the reservoirs of Israel, there are 29 invasive species of fish, including the common gambusia ( Gambusia affinis ) introduced for mosquito control ^[239] . A smooth spur frog ( Xenopus laevis ) was successfully introduced from amphibians in Israel ^[181] . Also 52 species of introduced terrestrial and freshwater gastropods were recorded, of which 9 species became extinct over time. 34 of the successfully introduced species are found only in the environment of human life - in parks, gardens, greenhouses, in the fields. The ranges of some of them in Israel are extremely limited. For example, a small but stable colony of snails Rumina decollata exists only in the garden of one of the monasteries in Jerusalem. Nine species (seven of which are freshwater snails) managed to create sustainable natural populations. One of these species - Physella acuta - even managed to become the most common freshwater snail in Israel. Ten introduced species are agricultural pests ^[240] .

At the same time, a number of species living in the country since ancient times are threatened with extinction. In 2002, a list of vertebrate species under the threat of extinction was compiled in Israel. At that time, it included 12 species of mammals, 13 species of reptiles, two species of amphibians, 6 species of freshwater fish and 15 species of nesting birds, the existence of which was recognized as the greatest threat; another 23 species were recognized extinct completely or in Israel ^[241] . Based on the list, a book by Amit Dolev and Avi Perevelotsky “The Red Book of Endangered Species of Israel - Vertebrates”, published by the Department of Wildlife and Parks together with the Society for the Conservation of Nature, was released. The book contains information on the distribution of species, changes in their numbers, habitat and the main dangers threatening them, at the global and regional level. According to the book, in the light of vigorous human activity that has changed the face of the country since the beginning of the 20th century, 35 percent of Israel’s vertebrates are threatened with extinction (this percentage varies from 20% of birds to five of the six remaining amphibian species ^[242] ) ^[4] . In total, 38 nesting and migratory bird species were included in the list in 2002, and 65 species were already included in the updated list, compiled by 2016. Three species - the nightingale cricket , shiloklyuvka and two-spotted lark - ceased to nest in Israel since 2002; at the same time, however, for four other species that were considered extinct in the region (including a rare worldwide mallard ), the status was changed to “endangered” (21 species with a total status of 21) ^[243] . As a result of the pollution of the Sorek and Alexander rivers, all the fish that inhabited them died; other coastal rivers of Israel dry up, as a result of which the Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ), which lived only in the Yarkon River, disappeared from Israel. The draining of the Hula Valley led to the extinction of a number of fish species, of which three are endemic to Israel ^[201] . As a result of human activities in Israel, more than 90% of the natural wetlands, which occupied about 25,000 ha at the beginning of the 20th century, disappeared. Currently, this biotope occupies only about 800 hectares of the former area in the reserves and about 10,000 hectares in the territory of artificial reservoirs - fish ponds, open water reservoirs and ponds for water purification ^[244] .

The threat to the existence of numerous animal species in Israel and neighboring countries was first recognized in 1924 when Palestinian authorities issued the Law on the Conservation of Game, which, however, was poorly enforced. After the proclamation of the State of Israel, hunting for a period of one year was banned on its territory, and in 1954 the Law on the Conservation of Wild Animals was adopted ^[245] .

In total, by May 2007, Israel had 190 reserves and 66 national parks , occupying a total of 20 percent of the country’s territory and managed by the Israel Wildlife and Parks Authority; more than 200 objects were proposed to be turned into reserves and national parks, and these proposals were at various stages of consideration ^[246] . Eilat’s coral reef was one of the first to be protected, and of the 11 kilometers of the Eilat coast, 1.2 kilometers were declared a conservation zone ^[246] . In 1997, Israel acceded to the international Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, under which two reserves of the country, Hula and Ein Afek, received special conservation status ^[244] .

The state-supported initiative of the High Bar public organization to return the extinct species of mammals and birds to the nature of Israel led to the creation of two nursery reserves - the High Bar Carmel in northern Israel, specializing in breeding and reintroduction of Iranian fallow deer, Carmel deer , mouflon , Cretan mountain goat and white-headed vulture ; and High Bar Yotvata , in the south of the country in Arabia , working on the reintroduction of the Arabian oryx , kulan , ostrich and other species characteristic of desert and semi-desert regions. Both reserves are open to visitors and they have information and educational centers ^[247] .

Since 1990, a joint project to restore the Mediterranean Falcon ( Falco biarmicus ) population has been carried out on Mount Carmel with the assistance of the Zoological Center of Tel Aviv University and a number of environmental organizations. Over the next decade, more than 40 individuals of this species were released into nature in the mountainous regions of northern Israel — on Carmel and in the Galilee — but, despite the constant presence of the Mediterranean falcon in these areas, no information was received on its nesting ^[248] . The Jerusalem Bible Zoo is working to return to the natural habitat of species of animals that have disappeared in Israel, such as the Mesopotamian (Iranian) doe , Negev tortoise , bunny cat ^[5] white-tailed eagle and African eared vulture ^[78] . In total, by 2009, reintroduction of seven species of vertebrates was carried out in Israel, and plans for the reintroduction of another seven species were developed ^[241] .

In 1994, in the moshavim Mikmoret , located on the Mediterranean coast, a public environmental organization , the Israeli Center for the Study and Assistance of Marine Mammals , was established, working in conjunction with the Institute of Marine Research named after Leon Recanati, University of Haifa. The center is engaged in the study and rescue of marine animals, mainly dolphins, related educational projects, observation and legislative initiative to protect them. It is the only organization of this kind of activity in the Mediterranean region ^[249] .

The largest and oldest independent public organization in the field of nature conservation in Israel is the Israeli Society for the Conservation of Nature, created in 1953 in the wake of protests against the drainage of Lake Hula. The company carries out environmental protection lobbying in government (in particular, becoming one of the initiators of the Law on the Protection of Wild Animals of 1954 and the creation of the National Reserves Administration ten years later ^[245] ) and carries out large-scale campaigns aimed at promoting a respect for the environment among the population ^{[250 ]} . In the 21st century, the Society, together with the Jewish National Fund, implements the Agurim ba-Emek Ha-Hula project (“Gray Cranes in the Hula Valley”), which allows reaching consensus between local agricultural land owners and environmental organizations in order to reduce the damage caused to crops and crops by tens of thousands migratory and wintering gray cranes ^[251] . The implementation of the project made it possible to organize an educational tourist attraction, gathering tens of thousands of visitors during the flyby season. Another project carried out by the Israeli Society for the Conservation of Nature in cooperation with the National Preserves Authority, with the active participation of field owners in the Hula Valley, is to preserve and restore the nesting population of meadow tirushka . Within the framework of the project, control is carried out with the participation of volunteers over field work during the nesting period, as well as attraction of couples looking for nesting sites to areas not used in agriculture by installing mock meadow tees and voice baits on them ^[252] . In the 1980s, the Israeli press published materials on the biology of Helix texta , an endemic snail for Israel, whose core range is in the Baniyas Nature Reserve in the north of the country. This species, called the Hermon snail in Israel, is the largest representative of gastropods in the country. The publication aroused interest among collectors and animal dealers, who in a short time sharply reduced the natural population of the species. To preserve it, in 1997, two protected areas were created by the National Reserve Administration in which about fifty snails were resettled. Further observations showed that the project for the conservation of the species was successfully implemented and the condition of the species was stable ^[253]

A number of major environmental events are regularly held in Israel to attract as many participants as possible, usually associated with annual Jewish holidays. Among them is Yom Ha-Nesher (griffon day), which has already become traditional and was held for the fifth time (2013), which takes place on the days of Rosh Hashanah in the Gamla Nature Reserve ^[254] .

Israel takes part in international environmental educational events, such as, for example, International Bat Night (held in Israel for the third year in a row in 2013) ^[255] . The migratory flow of birds passing through Israel twice a year attracts the attention of a large number of professional ornithologists, amateur ornithologists, and simply nature lovers. In the season of maximum flight of birds, various events related to migration are held, attracting a large number of participants both from Israel and from other countries. One of them is the International Ornithological Festival held in the Ein Afek Nature Reserve in the Galilee (in 2013 it was held for the fourth time) ^[256] .

Израильские организации, связанные с организацией туризма , в последние годы оказывают поддержку инициативам экотуризма . В программу экотуров входят посещение заповедников и национальных парков ( Гамла , долина Хулы , Эйн-Геди , парк Тимна и другие), ботанических садов, кораллового рифа в Эйлате, объектов мирового культурного наследия, а также сельскохозяйственных и промышленных предприятий, использующих экологичные методы производства ^{[257] [258]} .