Chretien de Trois

Reliable documentary data about Chrétien de Troyes remained extremely small, which is characteristic of many figures of the Middle Ages . The problems are caused by accurate dating of both the events of his biography and the creation of essays. Researchers have difficulty even choosing the interpretation of the name: Chretien from Troyes, in Champagne , which the author accidentally mentions in verse 9 of “Ereka and Enida” ^[3] , or is it an ironic oxymoron “Christian from Greek pagan Troy” Where do the French find their mythological ancestors? The preposition "de" in this case does not indicate a noble origin, but a social status - a native of the city of Troyes.

The name of the poet is not mentioned in any documentary source of the high Middle Ages ^[4] . Most of the information about the life and work of the author is drawn from his own works. It is known that Chretien de Trois was born Champagne in the early 1130s ^[5] . The texts of the novels give reason to believe that the poet mastered the trivium and quadrivium , had a good education, characteristic of the clergy of that time ^[6] . According to A. D. Mikhailov , the poet was an educated learned cleric in the service of Heinrich the Generous , Count of Champagne , and enjoyed both his patronage and his wife Maria Champanskaya ^{[K 1] [7]} . Later he enjoyed the patronage of Philip of Alsace (Philip of Flanders) ^{[K 2] [8] [9]} , which follows from the lines of the poet in the prologue of Perceval (verses 11–68) ^[10] .

The assumption of the death of the poet around 1190 is based on the dating of the novel Perceval ^[6] . The work was dedicated to Philip of Flanders, who went on his last crusade and died of the plague during the siege of Acre in 1191. Therefore, work on the order of the count could begin no later than 1190. Since the 1190s, anonymous and other sequels of the Grail novel have been disseminated, but there is no information on Chretien’s works. Since after 1191 “the poet’s traces are lost”, this date can be considered the presumptive year of the death of Chretien de Troyes ^[11] .

The first writer in the history of French literature, to the five famous works of which the term " novel " is applicable; founder of the cycle of works about King Arthur ( Breton cycle or Arthurian ), at whose court the fraternity of the Knights of the Round Table was founded. First processed the legend (myth) about the religiously significant hidden, but desired and unattainable object - the Grail . Poet and writer, master, founder of the Arthurian - this is represented by Chretien de Trois (or Chretien of Troyes), whose life is not known. With sufficient confidence, we can only say that the writer lived in Champagne at the end of the 12th century and created 5 admirable out of the 10 most significant novels of his era, the style of which was imitated by other authors ^[12] . Thanks to French authors, especially the work of Chretien de Troyes, the Old French language gained the status of a pan-European literary language ^[11] . The term “master” in relation to Christian (meister Cristien von Troys) was used by Wolfram von Eschenbach , which corresponded to the official rank of cleric ^[6] .

The ministerial of noble origin, the founder of the courteous style in North French literature, Chretien de Trois in the choice of plots and in the description of love relationships is still at the junction of two eras. Following you, Chretien de Trois introduces Breton motifs into the courteous literature: the novels Erek, Ivein, Lancelot, Percival are played out at the court of King Arthur . The concept of “Arthurian cycle” ^{[13] is} contrasted with series of essays of a different content, for example, Carolingian cycles. At the same time, the "Erek" traces the ancient and Byzantine influence, but the "sinful and shameful" love story about Tristan and Isolde, glorifying the power of love, provokes a protest in Chretien de Troyes. The ambiguity of the views of Chretien de Troyes can be traced in his attitude to women. In the early novels, de Troyes subjected her heroines to severe trials, for example, in the novel "Erek" to the wife of Erek Enid for the lack of humility befitting his wife. And in other songs, Chrétien de Trois develops one of the main provisions of a new understanding of love as a courteous service to a married lady, considering it the most perfect and worthy form of passion. Chretien de Trois hesitates between the old feudal ecclesiastical and the new secular-courteous worldview. In his work, features are clearly revealed that make it possible to bring courtesy closer to Renaissance rationalism and an attentive attitude to human experiences. In his work, Chretien de Trois tries to conform to the ideal of clear and reasonable harmony inherent in courtesy poetry.

Chretien had his own students, and one of them, Godfroix de Lagni , he instructed to finish the story of a bored maître about Lancelot of the Lake . This is the first step towards creating a "school", the contours of which, however, are still barely outlined.

Of the surviving works of Chretien de Trois, 2 songs, 5 chivalric novels and 2 poems " Filomena " and " William of England " are known. All 5 novels of the writer that have come down to us are written in Old French with eight-syllable verses with a pair rhyme ^[8] . The number of verses in different versions of manuscripts varies. The story of Tristan and Isolde , processed in accordance with the requirements of the courteous style, named in the prologue of Klizies, “On King Mark and the Blonde Isolde”, was not preserved.

Songs

Researchers note that in his youth, Chrétien de Trois composed courtly songs in the spirit of the North French Truvers ^[8] . Despite the fact that 6 songs are attributed to the poet in various song collections, Paul Zyumtor believed that only two of them ( Amors tençon et bataille (R.-S. 121) ^[14] "Cupid is inexorably crowded, / Threatens with bloody abuse" ^{[ 15]} ; and D'Amors qui m'a tolu a moi (R.-S. 1664) ^[16] “Having stolen from me, / Cupid damages me” ^[17] ) can be considered authentic: “These songs are absolutely the exact French equivalent of the canons of troubadour in its most classical form ” ^[18] . A. D. Mikhailov wrote about the varying degrees of reliable attribution of the three songs and shared the researchers' doubts about the authorship of the fourth - rondo ^[19] - from published in the Russian translation in the series Literary Monuments ^[20] . P. Zyumtor suggested that the number of songs composed by Chretien was much larger, but a significant part of them did not survive. At present, critics do not doubt Chretien’s authorship of two songs, on the basis of which the poet is recognized as one of the first truvers ^{[4] [21]} .

Filomena

The question of Chretien’s authorship of the poem “Philomena” (c. 1168 ) is not closed and continues to be the subject of scientific discussions. The problem is the interpretation of the name of the author indicated in verse 734 - Crestiiens li Gois . However, Filomena was published in the last complete works of Chretien de Trois ^{[22] [21]} . Assuming the authorship of the poet, this is the first voluminous and earliest of his known surviving works. Based on Ovid 's Metamorphosis (Book VI. Procna and Philomelus ; 412–674), the poem contains 1,468 eight-syllable verses.

Traces of Ovid’s fascination are found not only in the preserved “Filomen” and in the names of other treatments of a number of Ovidian plots that have not reached us, not only in a direct reference to the fascination with the ancient Roman poet (as it is known, “Klizhes” begins), but also in the reminiscences revealed by researchers from Ovid in a number of novels ^[23] .

Erek and Enida

This work is considered the first novel of the Arthurian cycle ^[24] . The composition dates from approximately 1170 year ^[25] . This courteous novel tells of the victory of love over chivalrous valor.

Klizhes

The work is conceived as an answer to the poetic "Tristan novel" by Thomas the British ^[26] . The novel was completed around 1176 ^[25] .

Lancelot, or Knight of the Cart

Presumably created in the years 1176-1181 ^[25] . The dedication in the prologue of the novel indicates the relationship of Chretien de Troyes with the court of Maria Champagne, at the direction of which an essay was created on Lancelot 's love for Queen Ginevra . The follower of Chretien de Troyes Godfroix de Lagny worked on the end of the novel ^[8] .

“Ewayn, or the Knight with the Lion”

Work on the novel about the conflict of love and knightly prowess of Ivein took place according to researchers at the same time as the previous work about Lancelot in 1176–1181 ^[25] .

“Perceval, or Grail Story”

The last and incomplete novel about the Grail stands apart, distinguished by special features. It is assumed that the work, combining the story of a simpleton and the “widow's son” Perceval with the mystical motives of the Christian apocrypha , was created in 1181-1191 ^[25] . The poet received an order to process the legend at the court of Philip of Alsace ^[9] , which Chretien reported in the prologue of the novel (verses 62–64 order of Count Philip of Flanders) ^[27] . There, the author mentions his own name - Chretien (verse 61) ^[27] . N.V. Zababurova cites the assumption of D. Poirion, who quoted the words of Gerber Montrey from the sequel to Perceval (circa 1230) that the death of Chretien prevented the completion of the novel ^[6] .

"William of England"

The authorship of Cretin de Troyes of the monument of everyday literature, an hagiographic poem, sometimes inaccurately called a "novel" ^[23] continues to be debated by researchers. Despite this, the poem was published in the last complete works of Chretien de Trois ^[22] .

• Chrétien de Troyes. Œuvres complètes / Éd. Daniel Poirion, Anne Berthelot, Peter F. Dembowski, Sylvie Lefèvre et al .; trad. de l'ancien français par Anne Berthelot, Peter F. Dembowski, Daniel Poirion, Philippe Walter. - Édition bilingue. - Paris: Gallimard, 1994 .-- lix + 1531 p. - (Bibliothèque de la Pléiade; No. 408). - ISBN 9782070112760 .

When publishing the last complete works of Chretien de Troyes, the so-called “Guillot List” ( Guiot BN fr. 794) ^[28] was taken as the basis of the text, the manuscript BN fr was used as a control text for verification. 1450 ^[21] . Each of these two manuscripts contains an almost complete collection of 5 large novels by Chretien. In addition, the publishers of the collection consulted with other manuscripts. The publication contains 5 poetic novels about Erek, Klizhes, Ivayne, Lancelot and Perceval, the authorship of which is not in doubt. Despite the controversial authorship, the collection included "Philomena" and "William of England", as well as songs by Chretien de Trois ^[21] .

• Ivane, or the Knight with the Lion : a novel in verse / Abbreviation. per. from the old French V. B. Mikushevich // Medieval novel and novel / Entry. Art. and approx. A. D. Mikhailova . - M .: Fiction, 1974. - S. 31-152. - 639 p. - ( World Literature Library ; vol. 22). - 303,000 copies.
• Songs = Chansons / Per. from Old French V. B. Mikushevich // Erek and Enida. Klizhes / Resp. ed. E. A. Gunst; applications: Art. and note. A. D. Mikhailova . - scientific. - M .: Nauka, 1980 .-- S. 419-424. - 510 s. - ( Literary monuments ; No. 256). - 100,000 copies.
• Erek and Enida = Erec et Enide: a novel in verse / Transl. from Old French N. Ya. Rykova // Erek and Enida. Klizhes / Resp. ed. E. A. Gunst; applications: Art. and note. A. D. Mikhailova . - scientific. - M .: Nauka, 1980 .-- S. 5-211. - 510 s. - ( Literary monuments ; No. 256). - 100,000 copies. (6,959 verses).
• Klizhes = Cliges: novel in verse / Transl. from Old French V. B. Mikushevich // Erek and Enida. Klizhes / Resp. ed. E. A. Gunst; applications: Art. and note. A. D. Mikhailova . - scientific. - M .: Nauka, 1980 .-- S. 212-414. - 510 s. - ( Literary monuments ; No. 256). - 100,000 copies. (6,784 verses).
• Lancelot, or Knight of the Cart = Lancelot ou Le Chevalier de la Charrette: novel in verse / Transl. from the old French N.V. Zababurova and A.N. Triandafilidi; Art. and approx. N.V. Zababurova. - scientific publication. - M .: Common Place, 2013 .-- 328 p. - ISBN 978-99970-0102-3 . (7 123 verses).
• Perceval, or The Story of the Grail = Perceval ou le Conte du Graal: novel in verse / Transl. from the old French N.V. Zababurova and A.N. Triandafilidi; Art. and approx. N.V. Zababurova. - scientific publication. - M .: Common Place, 2014 .-- 408 p. - 200 copies. - ISBN 978-99970-0108-5 . (9,234 verses).

• Courteous literature
• Romance

• Zababurova N.V. Lancelot in search of love and glory // Lancelot, or Knight of the Cart = Lancelot ou Le Chevalier de la Charrette: novel in verse / Transl. from the old French N.V. Zababurova and A.N. Triandafilidi; Art. and approx. N.V. Zababurova. - scientific publication. - M .: Common Place, 2013 .-- S. 284-309. - 328 p. - ISBN 978-99970-0102-3 .
• Zababurova N.V. Chretien de Troyes and the unsolved mysteries of the Grail // Perceval, or The Story of the Grail = Perceval ou le Conte du Graal: novel in verse / Transl. from the old French N.V. Zababurova and A.N. Triandafilidi; Art. and approx. N.V. Zababurova. - scientific publication. - M .: Common Place, 2014 .-- S. 338-380. - 408 p. - 200 copies. - ISBN 978-99970-0108-5 .
• Zyumtor P. Appendix: 3. Chretien de Trois // Experience in building medieval poetics = Essai de poétique médiévale / Per. with fr. I.K. Staff. - SPb. : Aletheia, 2003 .-- S. 489-498. - 544 p. - 1200 copies. - ISBN 5-89329-566-8 .
• Lukov Vl. A. Chretien de Trois (Neopr.) . Electronic Encyclopedia . French literature from its origins to the beginning of the Newest period. Date of treatment March 4, 2019.
• Meletinsky E. M. "Breton" novels by Chretien de Trois and their structure // Medieval novel: Origin and classical forms: monograph / Otv. ed. Yu. B. Wipper. - M .: Nauka, 1983 .-- S. 105-137. - 304 p. - 5,000 copies.
• Mikhailov A. D. The novel and the tale of the high Middle Ages: entry. Art. // Medieval novel and novel / Entry. Art. and approx. A. D. Mikhailova. - M .: Fiction, 1974. - S. 11-19. - 639 p. - ( World Literature Library ; vol. 22). - 303,000 copies.
• Mikhailov A.D. Chapter Three. Creation Chretien de Trois // French chivalric novel and questions of the typology of the genre in medieval literature / Otv. ed. N.I. Balashov. - M .: Nauka, 1976 .-- S. 111—194. - 351 p. - 13,400 copies.
• Mikhailov A. D. Young heroes of Chretien // Erek and Enida. Klizhes / Resp. ed. E. A. Gunst. - scientific publication. - M .: Nauka, 1980 .-- S. 427-475. - 510 s. - ( Literary monuments ; No. 256). - 100,000 copies.
• Mikhailov A.D. Arturovskie legends and their evolution // Medieval legends and Western European literature. - M .: Languages ​​of Slavic culture, 2006. - S. 12-64. - 264 p. - (Studia philologica. Series minor). - ISBN 5-9551-0150-0 .
• A Companion to Chrétien de Troyes: [ eng. ] / Edited by Norris J. Lacy and Joan Tasker Grimbert. - Suffolk; Rochchester: DS Brewer, 2005. - P. xiv + 242. - (Arthurian studies; No. 63). - ISBN 978-1-84384-050-3 .
• Douglas K. Daniel Poirion, dir. - Chrétien de Troyes. Œuvres complètes. Paris, Gallimard, 1994 : [ fr. ] : compte-rendu / Kelly Douglas // Cahiers de civilization médiévale. - 1997. - No. 159. - P. 301-302.

Bibliography

• I. Christian von Troye's sämtliche erhaltene Werke, hrsg. v. W. Foerster, Romanische Bibliothek, 1884-1899, No. 1, 5, 12, 20, 21; Ivain, hrsg. v. W. Foerster, 2 Aufl., Mit einem Nachtrag v. A. Hilka, 1927.
• II. Holland WL, Chr. v. Troye, 1881; Emecke H., Chr. v. Troye als Persönlichkeit und als Dichter, Würzburg, 1892; Mertens P., Die kulturhistorischen Momente in den Romanen des Kr. de Troye, Berlin, 1900; Schulz O., Die Darstellung psychologischer Vorgänge in den Romanen Kr. v. Troye, Halle, 1903; Hilka A., Die direkte Rede als stilistisches Kunstmittel in den Romanen des Kr. v. Troye, Halle, 1903; Borrman O., Putz R., Christians “Ivain” and Hartmanns “Iwain” nach ihrem Gedankengehalt, 1927.
• III. Potvin Ch., Bibliographie de Chrestien de Troyes, 1863.

• Kirpichnikov A.I. Chretien from Troyes // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron : 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
• Mikhailov A.D. Chretien de Trois // Brief Literary Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. A.A. Surkov . - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1962-1978.
• Paul Zyumtor . Chretien de Trois
• “Lancelot, or a knight in a cart”, Rus. and orig.
• Chrétien de Troyes. Bibliographie (Fr.) . Arlima - Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge. Date of treatment March 4, 2019.

The article uses the text from the Literary Encyclopedia of 1929-1939 , which passed into the public domain , since the author - RS - died in 1939.