History of Turkmenistan

Scientists suggest that in prehistoric times the territory of Turkmenistan was inhabited by Neanderthals , since traces of their stay in the vicinity of the village of Gaurdak ( Chardzhou region ) were discovered. The Tomchi-Su site dates from the Middle Pleistocene.

On the territory of Turkmenistan, the Mesolithic sites of Kailu ^[1] and the cave site of Jebel (near Nebit-Dag ) ^{[2] were} discovered, the carriers of which are in the VI millennium BC. e. migrated to the Volga . Geometric microliths and micro-scrapers dominated the sites of Dam-Dam-Cheshme 1, Dam-Dam-Cheshme 2, Jebel ^[3] . These peoples already owned the technique of making primitive ceramics and still used stone tools. Anthropologically, they belonged to the ancient Ural race ^[4] . A number of indicators bring the Jebel camp site closer to the Keltiminar culture , which is usually associated with the ancestors of the Finno-Ugric peoples . The neolithic burial ground of Tumek-Kichidzhik in Northern Turkmenistan belongs to the Kelteminar culture. In the cave A.P. Okladnikov in 1949-1950, in addition to layers of the Mesolithic era, found monuments of the Neolithic and early Bronze Age ^[5] .

Classical Neolithic is represented by agricultural Jeytun culture (VI-V millennium BC, named after the settlement of Jeytun ), which represented the periphery of the Middle East archaeological complex. According to the data of modern linguistics, the native speakers of this culture spoke the Sino-Caucasian languages , from which the hypothesis is based that they could bring the Neolithic culture to China ( Yangshao ). Paleoanthropological remains belong to the Eneolithic from Geoksiur on the right bank of the Tejen and Karadepe in Central Kopetdag, to the Neolithic - from the Chagylla-Depe, Chakmaklydepe and Monzhuklydepe in the lower reaches of the Tejen, Ovadandepe in Ashkhabad region, Hapuzdepe ^[6 right bank ^{] [6] ]} .

At the end of the VI – beginning of the V millennium BC, the Jeytun culture was replaced by the Annau culture, the carriers of which represented a new wave of immigrants from Iran ^[9] who had already mastered the copper foundry. Synchronously with the culture of Annau in the V millennium BC. e. the settlement of Namazga-Tepe is emerging, on the basis of which the Margian civilization ( Gonur-depe ) is formed, which is part of the circle of Dravidian cultures of the Middle East ( Harapp civilization , Elam ) .

In the II millennium BC. e. the territory of Turkmenistan is inhabited by the Aryan tribes of Andronovo culture , and native speakers of Dardic languages are considered the first wave of conquerors. Researchers suggest that in the IX-VII centuries BC. e. here (as well as in the adjacent territory of northern Afghanistan ) the proto-Iranian union of Aryoshayan described in the Avesta was formed, which was partly defeated, partly pushed south by the Turan- Massaget nomads ^[10] .

As part of the Achaemenid Empire

After the formation of the Zoroastrian ancient Iranian civilization, the lands of Turkmenistan fall into its orbit. In the IV - VI centuries. BC e. it creates the satrapy of Margiana (with a center in the city of Merv ), which is part of the state of the Achiminids .

Parthia

The first state, the center of which was located on the territory of Turkmenistan, was Parthia with its capital in the city of Nisa . Another important center of the country at that time was Merv . The nucleus of the Parthian state was the Saka tribe of mates that wandered in the territory of Turkmenistan. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Seleucid state , they first subjugated the adjacent territories of Hyrcania and Khorasan , and then all of Persia , Mesopotamia , Armenia and Bactria . However, the Central Asian nomads who spoke the Indo-European languages ​​- Tohars ( Yuezhi ) became a serious enemy of the Parthians.

As part of Sassanid Iran

After the fall of Parthia, the Turkmen lands again turn into the periphery of Iran ( Sassanids ). The territories of Turkmenistan at that time were known as northern Khorasan . In the IV century, Christianity penetrated the territory of Turkmenistan: in 334 Merv , a bishop's department was established ^[11] .

In the V - VI centuries. the territory of Turkmenistan belonging to the Sassanids was conquered by nomadic Iranian-speaking Ephtalites , after the defeat of which the Sassanids again returned their lost influence. However, at the northern borders of Iranian-speaking Turkmenistan, a Turkic Khaganate was formed . In the VIII century, the Arabs defeated the state of the Sassanids and brought Islam to the territory of Turkmenistan. In 776 - 783 years. the population participated in the anti-Arab uprising led by the Hurramit Hashim ibn Hakim (Mukanna).

• In the IX - X centuries. in the states of Tahirids , Samanids .

The first attempt to create a Turkic state on the territory of Turkmenistan was made by Alp-tegin , who in the 10th century founded the short-lived state of the Ghaznavids . The formation of the Turkmen people is associated with the migration of Oguz tribes led by Togrul-bey Seljukid , who founded his own state in 1037 . To the XI century. Seljuks established control over the territory of Turkmenistan, however, a series of military victories allowed them to create an extensive state. In 1055, the Seljuks took Baghdad . Nevertheless, the territory of Turkmenistan continued to remain the center of the mighty Seljuk empire ^[12] . As a result of the Seljuk campaigns, certain groups of Turkmen settled in the Middle East. They did not constitute a majority there ( Turkoman ), but created a number of state entities there ( Kara-Koyunlu ).

In the XII century, the territory was conquered by Khorezmshahs : in 1141, Ala ad-Din Atsyz captured Merv , and in 1193 Ala ad-Din Tekesh finally annexed Khorasan to Khorezm. By then, the Turkmen who had moved to the west had their own state association, the Koni Sultanate , whose territory became the core of the formation of the Turkish people .

At the beginning of 1219, the territory of Turkmenistan, subordinated to Khorezm, was subjected to a devastating Mongol invasion . The cities of Merv and Urgench were turned into ruins. The territory of Turkmenistan for a long time turns into the periphery of neighboring states: the Mongol-Persian state of the Hulaguids (XIII-XIV centuries), and then the Uzbek empires of the Timurids (XIV-XVI centuries), the Bukhara and Khiva khanates . During this period, free Turkmens returned to the tribal system. Carpet-making has reached a special development ^[13] .

In 1654, part of the Turkmens from the Mangyshlak peninsula first moved north to the Astrakhan steppes, and then migrated to the North Caucasus ( Trukhmen ) under the onslaught of Kalmyks ^[14] . Another part of the Mangyshlak Turkmen at that time migrated south, where they formed the large and influential clan of the Tekins ^[15] . The third part of the Mangyshlak Turkmens moved towards the Amu Darya and formed the Ersari tribe ^[16] .

In 1869, the first Russian fort Krasnovodsk was founded on the coast of the Caspian Sea. In 1880-1881, the Turkmen lands were finally annexed to Russia as a result of the Akhal-Teke expedition under the leadership of General Mikhail Skobelev .

Russian military scientist G. A. Leer said of Skobelev that "the Akhal-Teke expedition identified him as a commander."

The condition of the troops, their tactics and weapons during the expedition. If we compare the condition of our troops, tactics and armaments during the Krupelev expedition with the same indicators of the opponents, then, of course, we exceeded them in everything very significantly. This made it possible to win victories in Central Asia with a relatively small number of troops.

- Akhal - Teke expedition of 1880-1881. ^[17]

The last fell oasis Geok-Tepe . Ashgabat was built as a supporting fortress, and the country was renamed the Trans-Caspian region . In 1885 ( Fight on Kushka ), Russian possessions closed in the east with the British, defining the modern Turkmen-Afghan border. In the Russian period, the Central Asian Railway was laid in Turkmenistan. The economy of the region was based on cattle breeding and cotton growing, but the exploitation of oil resources also began. So in 1876, the company of the brothers Alfred and Ludwig Nobel drilled the first oil wells in western Turkmenistan ^[18] . The local population remained rural, and Russian colonists settled in cities (see also List of Russian resettlement villages in Turkmenistan ).

The Russian Bolsheviks had some influence among the Russian workers of the Turkmen cities and therefore an attempt to establish Soviet power was made synchronously to the center, that is, already in November 1917, but soon the local Russian workers raised an anti-Bolshevik uprising . As a result, an international democratic collaborative Trans-Caspian interim government that turned to Great Britain for help.

In 1920, the Red Army occupied Krasnovodsk . The main part of the territory of Turkmenistan on August 7, 1921 as the Turkmen region became part of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic . On October 27, 1924, according to the national-state delimitation of the Soviet republics of Central Asia, it was transformed into the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic . The communists handed over land to Soviet-controlled agricultural cooperatives, which were mainly engaged in cotton growing. The oil industry was developing. The fight against illiteracy was carried out during the propagation of atheistic ideology.

• On the night of October 6, 1948 , a severe earthquake occurred in Ashgabat that claimed the lives of 60 to 100 thousand people.

In 1954, the construction of the Karakum irrigation canal began

The Central Asia - Center gas pipeline was commissioned in 1967, through which Turkmen gas went to the central regions of Russia ^[19]

Perestroika in Turkmenistan

In December 1985, S. Niyazov became the first secretary of the Communist Party of the Turkmen SSR, but there were no significant changes in the republic for a long time ^[20] . Moreover, in July 1988, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Republic banned rallies and processions in Turkmenistan ^[20] . In May 1989, anti-Armenian riots took place in Ashgabat and Nebit-Dag, resulting in pogroms of points belonging to the Armenians ^[20] . The first Turkmen public association, Agzibirlik, was registered only on September 1, 1989, but on January 15, 1990, it was banned by the authorities of the republic ^[21] . In October 1990, the Supreme Council of the Turkmen SSR established the post of president of the republic. The establishment of the State Emergency Committee did not provoke any reaction in Ashgabat - only on August 21, 1991, S. Niyazov recognized the Committee’s decisions as illegal on the territory of the republic ^[22] . After the Emergency Committee, the Communist Party of Turkmenistan continued to operate legally and only after the referendum on the independence of the republic, held on October 26, 1991, dissolved itself ^[22] .

After the collapse of the USSR, Turkmenistan gained independence, an authoritarian regime of Saparmurat Niyazov (former first secretary of the Communist Party of Turkmenistan) was established in the country, which received the official title of Turkmenbashi on October 22, 1993 .

In 1994-1995 , the country considered the question of transforming the top position of the president occupied by Saparmurat Niyazov Turkmenbashi into a shah and declaring Turkmenistan a shah . The word Republic was excluded from the name of the state “Republic of Turkmenistan”, and the official name of the country was “Turkmenistan”. However, at a meeting of elders in 1994 in the Balkan province , this idea was not unanimously supported by elders representing several clans of Turkmenistan ( ^[23] and others). In this regard, and to a greater extent, taking into account the negative attitude expressed in the course of tacit consultations to the leadership of neighboring Iran , Uzbekistan , and Russia, and taking into account Niyazov’s strained relations with his possible son, Murad, Niyazov was not declared a shah. Later, in December 1999 , Saparmurat Niyazov was declared president for life.

The personality cult of Turkmenbashi included the erection of monuments and mosques of Turkmenbashi Rukha , renaming of streets, as well as mountain peaks and even the whole city (Krasnovodsk became Turkmenbashi ). Opposition and free internet were banned, censorship, the Iron Curtain , and surveillance of citizens and foreigners were introduced. In November 2002, an assassination attempt was allegedly made on Niyazov’s life in Ashgabat: the president’s motorcade was allegedly fired from a truck. No one was injured in the incident. Turkmenbashi called the assassination of former high-ranking Turkmen officials: Foreign Minister Boris Shikhmuradov and Minister of Agriculture Imamberdy Yklymov. In connection with this event, more than 200 people were arrested ^{[24] [25]} .

Instead of Soviet ideology, the moderate-nationalist ideology of the “holy” book of Turkmenbashi Rukhnama (“A Philosophical and Historical Study of the Spirituality of the Turkmen People”, outlining the orders and covenants of the present and future generations of the country 2001–2004 ), which was close in status to The Qur'an . In the political, social, economic, and everyday life of the population, many innovations were introduced up to the point of absurdity. However, thanks to the export of natural gas and some social support measures, Turkmenistan has managed to maintain a moderately high standard of living.

Contrary to the forecast by the population and some analysts of the onset of a systemic crisis in Turkmenistan in the event of a sudden death of Turkmenbashi, after the death of Niyazov, which turned out to be quick and unexpected for the Turkmen people, on December 21, 2006, the change of political power took place outwardly peacefully, there was no obvious crisis. However, the fulfillment of the duties of the president by the chairman of the parliament-Mejlis (the criminal case was instituted against Ovezgeldy Ataev , who was in this position) was not provided for by the constitution). The decision of the Security Council of Turkmenistan, the interim head of the country was the Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Health Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov , who was then elected the second president of Turkmenistan in the February 11, 2007 elections. Most of the innovations of Turkmenbashi were canceled in the country and the cult of his personality was largely abolished, the authoritarian regime was liberalized to some extent, and other reforms were carried out.

On February 12, 2012, the fourth presidential election took place . Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov was elected for a second term, with a result of 96.70% ^[26] .

On August 21, 2012, the second batch was created - the Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs . Before that, the country had a one-party system ^[27] .

1. Kaygisyz Serdarovich Atabaev February 1925-1937
2. Aitbay Khudaibergen August 1937 - October 1945
3. Sukhan Babaev 1945-1951
4. Balysh Ovezov 1951-1958
5. Juma Durdy Karaev January 1958 - January 1959
6. Балыш Овезов январь 1959 — июнь 1960
7. Абды Анналиев июнь 1960—1963
8. Мухамедназар Гапуров март 1963 — декабрь 1969
9. Ораз Назарович Оразмухамедов декабрь 1969 — декабрь 1975
10. Баллы Язкулиев 1975—1978
11. Чары Союнович Каррыев декабрь 1978—1985
12. Сапармурат Атаевич Ниязов март — декабрь 1985
13. Аннамурад Ходжамурадов декабрь 1985 — ноябрь 1989
14. Хан Ахмедов ноябрь 1989 — ноябрь 1991
15. Сапармурат Атаевич Ниязов ноябрь 1991 — июнь 1992 (пост упразднен)

• Миграция тюрков

• History of Turkmenistan
• History of Turkmenistan
• L. Ter-Mkrtichyan. Armenian sources about Central Asia of the 5th – 7th centuries . - M .: Science, 1979.