Portuguese literature

The oldest monuments of Portuguese literature, apart from the few passages of the so-called cossantes — lyric poems ^[1] created as a result of the interbreeding of church and folk song traditions — are the poetic heritage of the troubadours of the 13th - 15th centuries Iberian Peninsula , which created cantigi (songs) in the new Romance language, conditionally called the Galician-Portuguese language .

The Galician-Portuguese poetry school reproduced in the new Romance language of the Iberian Peninsula poetry genres characteristic of Provencal troubadour poetry. It took shape in feudal aristocratic Portuguese-Spanish circles, having its representatives ^{[ clarify ] the} Castilian king Alfonso X (d. 1290), - the Galician lyrics were court at the Castilian court, - a number of princes of blood, many poets from among the court intelligentsia, etc. Their poetry, imbued with motives of love languor, courteous sensitivity and mystical Symbolism , reached its peak under King Dinesis I (1279-1325). Troubadours and jugglers of the kingdoms of Portugal and Galicia mastered and introduced into the courtyard lyrics the archaic autochthonous folk genre of cantigi about a friend ( port. Cantiga de amigo ) ^[2] , which is not found among Provencal authors ^[3] .

The poetic arches of this era were “ Songbooks ” ( Cancioneiros ), of which the “ Song of Ajud ”, “ Songbook of the National Library ”, or “Kolochchi-Brankuti” ( Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, Cancioneiro Colocci-Brancuti ), survived to our time. Songbook of the Vatican ”(or“ Vatican Songbook ”- Cancioneiro da Vaticana ) ^[1] . Another invaluable source - the Sharrera Parchment , discovered in 1990 with 7 cantigas about the love of the king-troubadour Dinis I, confirmed the hypothesis about the unity of poetry and music in the courteous literary tradition of the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula.

Galician-Portuguese lyrics fell into decay with the advent of prose . The extensive “Universal Songbook” ( Cancioneiro Geral ), published in Lisbon in 1516 ^[2] , contains works that belong not to the Galician-Portuguese, but to the Galician-Castilian troubadour school. In addition to love and mystical lyrics, there are also poems dating back to folk song traditions, and satires imitating Provencal lilacs .

A further stage in the development of Portuguese poetry was marked by the decisive influence of Latin and Italian designs. The earliest of the attempts of the epic narrative - the “Poem about the Battle of Salado ” by Afonso Giraldes ( Affonso Giraldes ), from which only two fragments without continuation ^[4], belongs to the second half of the XIV century . Spanish-Italian and classical influences can already be distinguished from the Portuguese-Galician lyricists of the late XIV and early XV centuries , some of which already belonged to the Galician-Castilian troubadour school. Such are Juan Rodríguez de la Cámara , also known as Juan Rodríguez del Padrón , 1390-1450, Fernant Casquicio , ancestor of Luis de Camoens Galician troubadour Vasco de Camoerges, g. 13 . (d. 1385), Garci Fernandez de Jerena ( Garci Fernández de Gerena , 1340-1400), the last Galician-Portuguese troubadour Masías the Lover ( Macías o Namorado ) and many others. Knightly novels of the Breton cycle were a popular reading in this era, of which, in the 13th century , Amadis Galsky was widely used. The question of the influence of the Portuguese development of this novel on the Spanish Amadis remains open, although the historical and literary tradition continues to give priority to Portugal.

Of the early prose writers, mention should be made of King Duarte I (1391-1438) with his moral and philosophical encyclopedia " Faithful Counselor " ( port. Leal conselheiro ) and the chroniclers Fernand Lopes (1380-1460), Gomes de Azurara (1410 - c. 1474), who left a description of the campaign against Guinea, and Duarte Galvan ( Duarte Galvão , 1445-1517). The forerunners of the “golden age” of Portuguese poetry should be considered the refined bucolics of Bernardin Ribeiro ( Bernardim Ribeiro , 1486–1554), the author of the famous pastoral Menina e moça , and Cristóvão Falcão , 1500–1558, who had a significant influence on Spanish literature.

Thus, by the middle of the 16th century, we were observing in Portuguese literature all the genres characteristic of feudal aristocratic poetics. The economic recovery of Portugal in connection with its colonial expansion in America, Africa and Asia gave a powerful impetus to the development of its national culture. The 16th century is rightfully considered the "golden age" of Portuguese literature. The influence of Italian Renaissance influences is becoming ever more pronounced. Young Portuguese trading capital is culturally associated with the best and most sophisticated of what could be found among neighbors and rivals. Studying with the classics of the Apennine peninsula in conjunction with an extraordinary poetic talent created such a great poet as Francisco de Sa de Miranda (1495-1558), the author of eclogues , lyric poems and comedies of the Italian type, who actively introduced Italian rhythms and poetic forms into Portuguese lyrics . Its successors are Diogo Bernardes ( Diogo Bernardes , c. 1530-1605), Antoniu Ferreira ( António Ferreira , 1528-1569), Francisco Galvão (1563 - c. 1636) and others. Prominent representatives of Portuguese bucolic poetry were Francisco Rodrigues Lobo (c. 1550 - c. 1625)] and Fernão ваlvares do Oriente (1540-1595). The mysticism of Catholicism inspired the religious poetry of Eloi de Sá Soutomaior . The first Portuguese playwright, whose activity is also important in the history of the Spanish theater , is Gil Vicente (c. 1470 - c. 1536), the author of dialogues on religious topics and farcical household character. Based on the technique of church and street theaters of the late Middle Ages, he took into account the possibilities of a court performance in the Italian spirit. Subsequent Portuguese playwrights such as António Ribeiro Chiado (1520-1591), Baltazar Dias , more and more leaned towards Italian comedic models, promoted especially by Sa de Miranda. The dramatic story of Jorge Ferreira de Vasconcelos , 1515-1585, “Euphrosine”, written under the influence of the anonymous Spanish “Tragedy of Calisto and Melibey”, stands apart.

The largest figure of this era is the singer of the colonial greatness of Portugal, Luis de Camoes (1525-1580), who composed the solemn octaves to the Portuguese conquests in the distant Indian Ocean . His poem “ Lusiads ” ( port. Os Lusíadas , 1st edition of 1572 ), along with “ Liberated Jerusalem ” Tasso is the largest epic work of the Renaissance . Its basis is a description of the expedition of Vasco da Gama , who first discovered the sea route from Europe to India . Ten songs tell of the unparalleled heroism of the Portuguese flotilla and its captain, of their trials, fierce struggle and great victories in the midday countries "in the name of the Christian faith and greatness of the homeland." According to the rules of classical poetics, inherited mainly from Virgil , the Olympic gods take a close part in the events described. Camoens also uses convenient occasions to chant Portugal's former glory, generously scattering allusions to contemporary events throughout the poem. A number of stanzas of the poem are distinguished by their greatest visual mastery and lyrical pathos, overcoming the canons of epic narration. In addition to Luziad, Camoens owns the best sonnets in Portuguese poetry, written in the manner of Petrarch , odes, eclogues, and finally, three, though not so remarkable, comedies. Camoens's work was the culmination of the development of Portuguese literature of the era of colonial expansion; in a certain sense, it completed it, since a number of socio-political conditions in the future, up to the 19th century , did little to facilitate the country's literary success.

In 1580, Spain annexed Portugal in the form of a forcibly imposed union. Portugal lost a significant part of its colonial possessions, which passed into the hands of the Dutch and the British , and finally became the victim of the economic catastrophe, due to which the role of the countries of the Iberian Peninsula in European economic and political life has become tertiary since the 17th century. In the lot of many poets and writers were only memories of the past greatness of the colonial monarchy. From here we find a series of epic poems created in the Lusiad style to Jerome Corte-Real ( Jerónimo Corte-Real , 1540–1593), Luís Pereira Brandão , Mousinho Quevedo , Gabriela de Castro ( Gabriel de Castro 1571-1632), Francisco de Sa de Menezes (d. 1664) and others. The colonial expansion of Portugal and the growth of self-awareness of its expansionist groups associated with its economic and political successes in the 16th century served as sources and material for the development of extensive historical literature. The glorious times of the overseas campaigns and the brilliant reigns of the conquering kings gave plentiful food to the imagination of historians, such as Fernand López de Castaneda (1500 - c. 1550), Juan de Barrush (1496-1570), Diogo do Couto , 1542— 1616) and many others. Along with this, the growth of travel literature, especially travels in the East, should be noted. Other narrative genres of the era mainly copy Spanish-Italian patterns; such, for example, some rogue novels . The chivalrous novel, idealizing the former knighthood, declared itself a rival of Amadis in the European popularity Chronicle of Palmeirim de English ( Chrónica de Palmeirim de Inglaterra , 1567) Francisco de Moraes ( Francisco de Moraes , 1500-1572). In the second half of the XVI century, in connection with the development of the Catholic reaction, one can also observe a certain upsurge in religious and philosophical literature, presented by the mystics Tome de Jesus ( Frei Thome de Jesus , 1529-1582) and Joan de Gama (d. 1568).

In the XVII century, there was a complete impoverishment of Portuguese prose and the submission of drama to Spanish models, the decline of epic forms and historiography, forced to cultivate memories of past national greatness. For this entire period, only two or three names can be mentioned, towering above general impoverishment. Antonio Vieira ( António Vieira , 1608–1697) is interesting for his moral-revealing letters, sermons and “Prophecies” about the sad future of Portugal. In poetry, gongorists such as Francisco Manuel de Melo (1608-1666), António Barbosa Bacelar (1610-1663), Iolanthe Ceo and others dominate in poetry . Of all the literature of this era, the so-called Letters of a Portuguese Nun ”, written by Marianna Alcoforado (1640-1673), distinguished by their lyrical depth and subtlety in depicting love passion.

On the eve of the eighteenth century, the literary life of Portugal is warm in numerous feudal-salon academies, reflecting literary degeneration. The creation of the Portuguese Academy in 1720 and the cultural orientation towards France somewhat revived the sad literary reality. Francisco Xavier de Menezes , Francisco Xavier de Menezes (1673-1743), wrote the poem Enriqueida ( Henriqueida , 1741), members of the Arcadian Society Pedro António Correia Garção , 1724-1772 and da Cruz and Silva ( António Dinis da Cruz e Silva , 1731-1799) resurrected the classical traditions and earned the nicknames of the Portuguese Horace and Pindara . The first third of the eighteenth century includes the work of the talented playwright Antonio José da Silva ( António José da Silva , 1705-1739), the son of a baptized Jew who was burned at the stake on charges of Judaism. A return to classicism against the background of political reaction and economic decline testifies to the aspirations of a part of the Portuguese noble and bourgeois intelligentsia to turn away from ugly reality through an appeal to "harmonious" antiquity. In this regard, the relapse of bucolic and idyllic poetry by Maximiano Torres ( Domingos Maximiano Torres , 1748–1810), the return to the forgotten sonnet skill and the elegy by Manuel Barbosa do Bocage , the learned perseverance of the epic José Agostinho de Masedo ( José de Agostinho 1761-1831), etc. A group of satirists appears, headed by Nicolau Tolentino de Almeida , 1741-1811. The largest representative of classicism and, at the same time, a harbinger of romantic poetry is Francisco Manoel de Nascimento ( Francisco Manoel de Nascimento , 1734-1819).

The beginning of the 19th century brought untold disasters to Portugal. Being the scene of the struggle between the British and French, torn by civil war , a depleted and devastated country forgets literature. Its revival is already connected with the era of the growth of bourgeois self-consciousness, with the era of deep socio-political shifts that eventually led to the fall of the monarchy (1910). The first steps of romanticism at the beginning of the XIX century are associated with the liberal public. Almeida Garrett ( Almeida Garrett , 1799-1854) passed the school of French romantics in exile. Portuguese liberalism , due to the prevailing historical conditions, took on a bright national-patriotic coloring. The impending decline of Portugal and its political dependence, the liberals contrasted its glorious past. Therefore, liberal-romantic literature carried out the task of idealizing this past. In the work of Almeida Garrett this was reflected in the appeal to the folk poetic tradition, in the idealization of antiquity in the novel O arco de Santa Anna , in the poems Camoes ( Camões , 1825) and Dona Branca ( Dona Branca , 1826), in the dramas Auto Lived Vicente ”( Auto de Gil Vicente , 1838),“ Dona Philippa de Vilhena ”( Dona Philippa de Vilhena , 1840) and“ The Gunsmith from Santarem ”( About Alfageme de Santarem , 1842). The continuation of Garrett’s case was “Portuguese Walter Scott ” (1810-1877), author of Legends and Stories (1851), novels Presbyter Eurico (1844) and Cistercian Monk (1848). Erkulana also developed a liberal and anti-Catholic point of view in his historical works, The History of Portugal (1846-1853) and On the Origin and Establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal (1854-1859). A significant role in poetry was played by the romanticist Antonio Feliciano de Castilho (1800-1875) and sentimental lyrics, such as Francisco Gomes de Amorim (1827-1892), the author of several songs of freedom, drama, condemning racial hatred, etc.

From the middle of the 19th century, Portuguese literature entered a new phase in its existence. The young post-romantic generation, expressing the mood of the "rebellious" left-liberal bourgeoisie, turned their eyes to advanced Europe. The center of the literary movement is Coimbra with its university, and its head is the outstanding poet, member of the First International , Anteru de Kental (1842-1891), together with the philologist Theophilus Braga (1843-1924). Old Roman traditions, however, retained their strength for a long time. Poet (1831-1901) writes romantic and patriotic poems on historical material, João de Deus ( João de Deus , 1830-1896) expresses the lyrical element of romanticism in the spirit of Musset , Anteru de Quental shocked the provincial Portugal with its prudonism, anticleris and exposure of mental contradictions in their sonnets. Utopian socialism, imbued with motives of a peculiar mystical anarchism , is distinguished by the work of the author of the poem "Antichrist" by Gomesh Leal (1849-1921). The original version of the romantic patriot was the talented poet Gerra Junqueiro ( Guerra Junqueiro , 1850-1923). The ideologists of the dying aristocracy, referring to the past "the nobility of the nation, defeated in the dust before democracy", include Luis de Magalhães (1859-1935) with his poem "Don Sebastian." The largest representative of Parnassism was Antonio Feijo ( Antonio Feijo , 1862-1917), followed by a whole generation of modernists .

The Coimbra school brought up a number of prose writers who created a bourgeois-realistic and naturalistic novel. These include: prolific Camille Castello Branco ( Camillo Castello Branco , 1825-1890), a typical representative of petty-bourgeois philanthropism , author of a number of novels from the everyday life of the Portuguese city and its social basics, (1839-1871) - populist and chronicler of the province . José Maria de Eça de Queiroz , 1845-1900, Europe’s most famous new Portuguese writer, follower of Flaubert , the first and best representative of a psychological novel in Portuguese literature, focusing mainly on conflicts and the crisis of petty-bourgeois consciousness in the era of capitalization of the country. Представителями натурализма явились: Жулиу Пинту (1842—1907), Жайме де Магальяйнш Лима ( Jaime de Magalhães Lima , 1857—1936), Франсишку де Кейрош ( Francisco de Queiroz , 1848—1919), Мануэл де Силва Гайю ( Manuel de Silva Gayo , р. 1860), Жуан Граве ( João Grave , 1872—1934) с его романом из рабочей жизни Os Famintos , первая женщина член Лиссабонской академия наук (1847—1921), её муж Антониу Крешпу и т. д. Среди новеллистов, в основном испытавших влияние французских авторов, следует назвать Жулиу Машаду (1835—1890), Родригу Паганину ( Rodrigo Paganino , 1835—1863), Аугушту Сарменту, Жозе Фиалью де Алмей ду ( José Fialho de Almeida , 1857—1911) и Жозе Тринидаде Коэлью ( José Francisco Trinidade Coelho , 1861—1908). Драматургия XIX века совершила свой путь от романтического историзма школы Гаррета к натуралистической буржуазной драме. Из авторов этой группы наиболее известны: Фернанду Калдейра (1841—1894), Антониу Энеш (1848—1901), Масимилиану де Азеведу ( Maximiliano Eugénio de Azevedo , 1850—1911), Жозе да Монтейру (1846—1908). Значительнее всех Жуан да Камара ( João da Camara , 1852—1908) — драматург большого диапазона, известный в особенности своими драмами из быта уходящей в прошлое португальской аристократии. Жулиу Данташ ( Julio Dantas , 1876—1962) — крупнейший португальский драматург XX века . Рядом с ним следует назвать Ладислау Патрисиу ( Ladislau Patrício , 1883—1967), Франсишку Лаже , Жайме Кортезан , Виториану Брагу и некоторых других представителей натуралистической драматургии.

Литература Португалии начала XX века характеризуется отсутствием какого-либо центрального и главенствующего течения. Она в значительной мере ориентируется на французские образцы. Воинствующий символист Эужениe де Каштру (р. 1869) замкнулся в кругу своих виртуозных ритмов и условных, абстрактных образов. Поэтический импрессионизм и мистическую созерцательность культивируют поэты Раул Брандан ( Raul Brandão ) и Венсеслао де Морайш . Антониу Коррейра д'Оливейра ( Antonio Correira d'Oliveira , р. 1880) отличается приверженностью к религиозной романтике, так же как и его сверстник Афонсу Лопеш Виейра ( Affonso Lopes Vieira , p. 1878). Оба они — поэты заката романтизма , прошедшего формальную выучку у символистов.

Литературное поколение 1910-х (год падения монархии и установления республиканского режима ) выросло в условиях республиканско-буржуазного режима, в условиях глубокой внутренней дифференциации феодальной аристократии и буржуазной интеллигенции. На крайне правом фланге стоят такие авторы, как поэт-мистик Антониу Сардинья , поэт- парнасец Алберту Монсараш , католический романист Мануэл Рибейру ( Manoel Ribeiro ). Выразителями интеллигентской рефлексии являются поэты Тейшейра де Пашкуайш ( Teixeira de Pascoaes ) и Жайме Кортезан . В узком и неизвестном широкой публике кругу модернистов создаёт своих гетеронимов автор одного из лучших произведений современного португальского языка — антиромана « Книга непокоя » — Фернандо Пессоа .

Оппозиционная литература, проникнутая порой социалистическими и пацифистскими мотивами, представлена романами блестящего стилиста Акилину Рибейру ( Aquilino Ribeiro ) и Пину де Морайша . Социальным очеркистом , стоящим на платформе реформизма , является Эзекиел де Кампуш . Крестьянской идеологией пропитаны повести и рассказы Иполиту Рапозу , бытописателем распадающегося крестьянского уклада является Самуэл Мапа и изобразителем городского дна — Раул Брандан . Такие литературные течения, как экспрессионизм , дадаизм и т. п., нашли соответствующее отражение и в португальской литературе: пропагандистом их является поэт, новеллист и критик Антониу Ферру . Поэт-модернист Флорентину Гуларт Ногейра считался « фашистским интеллектуалом» и участвовал в политической борьбе против Португальской революции 1974 года .

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• A Bibliographic Index to Romance Philology / compiled by Mark G. Littlefield. — Volumes 1-25. — London: University of California Press, 1974. — ISBN 0-520-02455-9 .

Статья основана на материалах Литературной энциклопедии 1929—1939 .