Iroquois Economy

The property of the Iroquois was quantitatively and qualitatively extremely limited. But despite the fact that the total ownership of the tribe was insignificant in aggregate, it nevertheless existed and was distributed according to strictly established laws . Since the Iroquois had neither money circulation nor trade, their property consisted only of orchards, houses, hunting tools, weapons, clothes, household utensils , personal jewelry, animal skins and simple craftwork ^[1] .

In case of marriage, the husband and wife did not lose the right to their property. During the marriage , the couple disposed of their own property, taking everything with them in case of divorce . If the wife, before or after marriage, inherited orchards, planted or cultivated plots of land, she could have them at her discretion. In the event of her death, property was inherited by her children along with the rest of the property. On the paternal side, inheritance rights were different. Since the father’s children did not belong to his tribe, they were outside the line of inheritance, because according to the laws of the Iroquois, property could not inherit from another tribe. After his death, the property of the man was transferred to the closest relatives of his family, who usually transferred the house and other household items to the family, and distributed the remainder to each other. However, if he bequeathed all his property to his wife and children with witnesses, then they were allowed to own it after his death ^[1] .

Despite the existence of property, there was no property inequality in Iroquois society. Possession of material values ​​did not put the Iroquois higher on the social ladder. Social norms and traditions prevented the accumulation of large amounts of capital by individual members of the tribe or groups of individuals. Even the leaders did not stand out against the general background of material wealth, they wore exactly the same clothes as the other members of the tribe, and the gifts received were given to other tribesmen. The gift economy was justified by ritual goals and cemented social ties within the tribe ^[2] .

Land Ownership

The main component of the Iroquois economic system was community ownership of land. According to the French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagar , the Hurons close to the Iroquois had as much land as they needed. As a result, the tribe could provide families with land for temporary use, while a large amount of land remained in community ownership. Any Indian could clear the land for his plot. The land remained the property of a member of the tribe, while he continued to actively cultivate it. As soon as he stopped farming, the land returned to public ownership, and any Indian could take it for himself ^[3] . The fact of owning individual plots of land did not mean much, because the collected grain was also in community ownership and distributed by an elected organizer of work, part was stored in communal granaries ^[4] , part in storerooms in long houses . Thus, the inhabitants of one communal house kept all the stocks together ^[5] .

The peoples of the Confederation of the Iroquois had a similar public land distribution system. The tribe owned all the lands, but allocated plots to various clans for further distribution among households . Land was redistributed to households every few years, and the clan could ask for land redistribution at a meeting of the Council of the Clan Mothers ^[6] . Those families that abused the land allotted or did not care about it were warned and ultimately punished by the Clan Mothers Council ^[7] . Their land was redistributed among other clans. Land ownership issues were the prerogative of women ^[6] . The Clan Mothers Council also reserved certain areas of the land that were cultivated by women of all clans. Harvest from such lands, called kěndiǔ "gwǎ'ge 'hodi'yěn'tho, was used at holidays and large joint gatherings ^[7] .

The Iroquois dominated the gender division of labor , reflecting the dualistic schism typical of the Iroquois culture ^[3] : the mythological twins Rostock Klöna and Kremen embodied the fundamental difference between the two halves of humanity . Women were engaged in everything related to land, and men were engaged in everything related to forest, including the production of wooden products ^[7] . Men were also responsible for hunting, trade, and warfare, while women took care of the household. At the time of first contacts with Europeans, women of the Iroquois tribes produced about 65% of the goods. Combined food production has made hunger extremely rare. Even the early European settlers often praised their success in food production ^[7] .

The organization of the agricultural work of the Iroquois corresponded to their land ownership system. Women performed work together in large groups, gradually moving from field to field. They selected an experienced and active member of their group as a leader for one year and agreed to follow his instructions. Women also did other work together. According to Mary Jamison (a white woman who had lived long among the Indians), teamwork prevented disagreements about the usefulness of each woman's contribution ^[6] .

Men also collectively not only fought, but also hunted. However, men, unlike women, were more often united by the whole village, and did not work as separate clans. The main game animals were deer , elk , bear and various species of wild birds. Since the Iroquois had no hunting dogs , they had to hunt silently, baiting the victim. They also set traps for deer and bears, set nets for small game. Reindeer traps were tied to a bent tree in such a way that when touched around the legs of a deer, a loop was tightened. In this case, the tree was automatically untied from the ground and hung a deer above the ground. When hunting a bear, he was usually exhausted by a long pursuit and already exhausted he was killed with arrows and tomahawks ^[1] .

Large-scale hunting trips were also organized. One of the methods of such hunting was to lure animals into a space where a large number of hunters awaited them. For this, a large V-shaped fence was built in the forest. After that, they set fire to the forest in the expanded place of this structure, forcing the animals to run to the place where the hunters were waiting for them. Up to one hundred deer could be killed in one such hunt ^[6] .

Men also fished in large groups. They organized large fishing expeditions, in which canoes using various devices and nets blocked water flows. In this way, sometimes up to a thousand fish were caught in half a day. Indians considered prey and fish to be common property, which was shared among the tribesmen by the leader or taken to organize a joint holiday. Fishing was not universal and rather rarely was collective, but being such, as a rule, proved to be more successful ^[6] . Fishing was noticeably more important in the Hurons, related to the Iroquois, who created special camps for seasonal fishing ^[8] .

The limited territory and high population density against the background of natural growth led to an imbalance between society and nature. By the beginning of the XVII century, the Iroquois, asserting their right to exist, began to feel the need for free lands, which pushed them to conquer new fertile lands ^[9] . The largest villages totaled up to three thousand inhabitants ^[1] . By this time, they had a fairly developed stick-hoe farming. Thousands of hectares of sown fields surrounded the settlements of the Indians in a radius of up to 9 kilometers. In the pre-colonial era, environmental factors were decisive for the outbreak of war with neighboring tribes. The division of labor also contributed to the conquests. While women were engaged in agriculture, many men were free and could participate in raids without harming the economy of the tribe ^[9] . The Iroquois developed a system of exploitation of neighboring peoples in the form of robbery and coercion to pay tribute , which was a characteristic feature of a society with a developed military organization ^[10] .

The handicrafts of the Iroquois have changed a lot over the years of their existence. A radical change occurred after the resettlement of Europeans. Primitive products of the pre-Columbian era were gradually phased out. Along with them, many original inventions and simple crafts were lost. So, before the colonists appeared, metal products were not known to the Iroquois. In the manufacture of knives and chisels, they used siliceous slate . When felling trees, the Indians made a fire at the base of the tree and scraped off the coal obtained with a chisel. After the tree trunk was thinned, it was felled and then cut into pieces. Wooden vessels were hollowed out in the same way. The chisel was usually about fifteen centimeters long, seven and a half wide and five in thickness. The lower end of the bit was shaped like an ax blade. For more complicated vessels, stone semicircular chisels in the form of a concave incisor were used . Among household items, there were also stone mortars for crushing corn, grinding paint and grinding the roots and bark of plants ^[1] .

Arrowheads were made of siliceous slate or flint . Similar tips were used for other purposes. So, in some mounds were found rows of similar tips sixty centimeters long. According to L. Morgan , this indicates the manufacture of the likeness of swords from these tips, mounted on any skeleton ^[1] .

The Iroquois stone axes had a groove around the circumference to which an ax was tied with a belt or rod. Oval-shaped stones were likewise tied to batons ^[1] .

One of the most ancient crafts was pottery . Pottery was especially developed before the colonists arrived. The bulk of the items were tubes and clay vessels of various shapes and sizes. Ordinary ceramics were light fired and made with the addition of crushed quartzite into the clay. But the best ceramics are black-glazed, with a fine composition of clay dough and very durable ^[1] .

Leatherworking was one of the most important among the Iroquois crafts. But very soon they began to move from rawhide clothes to European fabrics. Of course, with the exception of moccasins ^[1] .

Important industries were the manufacture of wickerwork from bast and other plant materials (vessels, ropes), as well as vessels, dwellings and shuttles from elm bark, hickory or linden ^{[1] [11]} .

Co-production and community-based distribution of goods made domestic trade within the Iroquois Confederation meaningless, but foreign trade with tribes with resources that lacked the Iroquois was beneficial. The Iroquois exchanged surplus grain and tobacco for leather with the northern tribes and for the wampum with the tribes in the east. The Iroquois often used the gift process to exchange goods. The exchange process began with the fact that representatives of one clan made a gift to another tribe or clan, expecting to receive any goods needed in the household in return. The use of this form of trade is associated with the existence of public property and collective labor among the Iroquois. The exchange has always been carried out without a specific agreement. Foreign trade was one of the few opportunities for individual exchange. A person who discovered a new trade route had the exclusive right to trade on this route in the future, but the tribe, by agreement with the clans, could monopolize certain trade routes ^[6] .

The arrival of the Europeans made it possible to significantly expand trade. The first European goods appeared among the Iroquois back in 1570 ^[12] . Furs , which were in demand in Europe , exchanged cheaply for industrial goods that the Indians could not manufacture on their own. Trade has not always benefited Aboriginal people. The British took advantage of the gift economy. They posed the Iroquois with European goods, making them dependent, for example, on rifles and metal axes . Iroquois were also actively selling European-made spirits. Often free traders abused and used dishonest methods in trading. So, in the Ohio Valley, captured by the Iroquois from neighboring tribes and under their control, the problem became so serious by 1753 that Scarrooyady, the leader of the Iroquois, sent a letter to the governor of Pennsylvania to intervene in unfair trade ^[13] .

Beaver Wars

The so-called Beaver Wars, which took place for 70 years until the beginning of the XVIII century, had a huge impact on the Iroquois economy. The main product in the region was beaver fur, which the Iroquois themselves did not have very much. Close partnership with the colonists made the League the strongest formation in the north-east of North America, which, in turn, the Iroquois used to eliminate their competitors . Dependence on European goods, the depletion of their own hunting grounds, as well as the desire to obtain a monopoly on the sale of furs to the Europeans led to their military expansion in the region. Despite the successful start of the campaigns of conquest, at the time of signing the peace treaty the territory of the Iroquois League increased slightly. Moreover, in Europe by that time, the prices for furs fell, and beaver fur ceased to play such a large role in the trade of Iroquois ^[14] .

The Iroquois had their own unique understanding of property and work ethics . The threat of theft almost did not exist, since there was no personal property, with the exception of the basic tools and tools , which were so common that they had very low value . The only thing suitable for theft was a wampum. Несмотря на то, что общество, в котором отсутствует воровство, уважаемо всеми, общинные системы, подобные системе ирокезов, критикуются за то, что обеспечивают меньше стимулов для работы. Ввиду отсутствия индивидуальных стимулов им было необходимо развивать коллективную трудовую этику. Добродетель стала синонимом производительности . Идеальный член племени ирокезов был хорошим воином и удачливым охотником , в то время как женщина должна была быть заметна в сельском хозяйстве и ведении домашних дел. Подчеркивая полезность человека для общества, ирокезское мышление стимулировало работать, несмотря на то, что ирокезы получали результаты труда независимо от трудовых усилий ^[6] .

В связи с преобладанием коллективизма можно было бы ожидать, что ирокезы имели культуру, лишённую индивидуальности. Однако у ирокезов были сильны традиции личной ответственности. Мужчин-ирокезов учили самодисциплине , самостоятельности , ответственности и стоицизму . Ирокезы пытались устранять любые чувства зависимости в детстве и поощряли стремление к ответственности. В то же самое время ребёнок должен был участвовать в коллективной культуре. Детей учили думать самостоятельно, но при этом стараться приносить пользу всему обществу ^[15] .

Право на пользование землей и распределение продуктов принадлежало женщинам. Роль женщины в экономической жизни общества была очень велика и позволяла им влиять на принятие политических решений. Так, женщины могли запретить военный поход, если считали его неоправданным. Женщины дарили подарки на праздниках, поддерживая внутренние и внешние связи. Также они владели длинными домами и выдвигали кандидатов в члены Совета Длинного Дома ^[12] .

Многие ирокезы полностью интегрировались в экономику Соединенных Штатов и Канады . Экономическая деятельность других ирокезов более изолирована и ограничена резервациями. Тем не менее большая часть экономики ирокезов теперь находится под сильным влиянием экономики США, Канады и всей глобальной экономики . Ирокезы вовлечены в строительную отрасль уже более ста лет, многие мужчины племени мохок участвовали в возведении таких зданий, как Эмпайр-стейт-билдинг и Всемирный торговый центр ^[16] . Внутри резерваций экономическая ситуация зачастую была неблагоприятной. Например, в американской резервации мохоков безработица достигает 46 % ^[17] . Однако при этом во многих резервациях появились успешные фирмы. В резервации сенеки находится город Саламанка с долей индейского населения в 13 %, который является центром деревообрабатывающей промышленности ^[18] . Этому племени принадлежат зал для игры в бинго , бензоколонка и сигаретная фабрика. Сенека используют независимый статус резервации для продажи бензина и сигарет без налогов , а также для проведения высокодоходных лотерей . Кроме того, сенека владеют тремя индейскими казино : в Саламанке, на Ниагарском водопаде и в Буффало (открытое в 2007 году ^[19] ).

Племя онейда также построили свои казино в резервациях в Нью-Йорке и Висконсине . Племя онейда — один из крупнейших работодателей в северо-восточном Висконсине, они дают работу более чем 3000 человек. Племя управляет более чем 16 миллионами долларов федеральных и частных грантов с широким набором программ. Предприятия онейды приносят миллионы долларов сообществу ирокезов и повышают уровень жизни индейцев ^[20] .

Однако отсутствие некоторых ограничений на предпринимательство компенсируется отсутствием многих гарантий и прав. Так, например, предпринимательство в резервациях не может быть частным, а большая часть доходов после уплаты налогов должна идти в социальную сферу.

Земля после прихода европейцев

Ирокезская система управления земельными ресурсами изменилась после прихода европейцев и принудительной изоляции в резервациях. У ирокезов была система коллективной собственности земли, свободной для пользования всеми, кто в ней нуждался. При этом данная система не была полностью общественной, поскольку земля распределялась между отдельным семейными кланами ^[21] . После прибытия европейцев аборигены были вынуждены приспособить свою систему собственности к рыночной модели . Несмотря на влияние западной культуры , ирокезы сохранили своё уникальное представление о собственности. Современный ирокез Дуг Джордж-Кэнентиайо говорит о своём восприятия собственности: «Ирокезы не имеют никакого абсолютного права использовать землю для купли-продажи. Наш Создатель дал нам наши исконные земли на определённых условиях её использования. Мы — смотрители нашей Матери-земли — не являемся владельцами земли. Наши притязания действительны только тогда, когда мы живём в мире и гармонии с ней ^[22] .»

Резервации ирокезов в Канаде сочетают традиционную структуру собственности с новым образом жизни. Резервации были установлены согласно двум актам XVIII века. Согласно этим актам, земля перешла ирокезам в бессрочную аренду . Идеи ирокезов о том, что землёй владеет тот, кто её возделывает, нашли отражение в законах резерваций. В этих резервациях природные ресурсы принадлежат всему племени, а не какому-то конкретному лицу. Так, например, после того, как на территории резервации был обнаружен природный газ , племя взяло месторождения газа в свою собственность. При этом владельцам участков, на которых был обнаружен газ, компенсировали только ущерб, нанесённый его добычей ^[22] .

• Индейские казино

На русском языке

• Аверкиева Ю. П. Индейцы Северной Америки. От родового общества к классовому. — М. : Наука, 1974. — 348 с.
• Бадак А.Н., Войнич И.Е., Волчёк Н.М. и др. Начало колониальных империй / Всемирная история. В 24 томах. Том 12. — Мн - М.: Харвест, АСТ, 2001. — 592 с. — ISBN 985-13-0293-7 , 978-985-13-0293-8.
• Воробьев Д.В. Ирокезы (XV – XVIII вв.) // Цивилизационные модели политогенеза. - M. , 2002.
• Либенштейн А., Ясенко О. Индейцы Великих Озер в XVII веке: расселение и войны // «Первые Американцы», №6. — С-Пб – М., 2000.
• Морган Л. Г. Лига ходеносауни, или ирокезов. — М. : Наука, 1983. — 304 с.
• Стингл М. Индейцы без томагавков. — М. : Прогресс, 1984. — 456 + илл с.
• Теннер Дж. Тридцать лет среди индейцев. Рассказ о похищении и приключениях Джона Теннера переводчика на службе США в Со-Сент-Мари. — М. : Иностранная литература, 1963. — 360 с.
• Фентон У. Ирокезы в истории // Североамериканские индейцы. — М. : Прогресс, 1978. — 496 с.

In English

• Deloria P., Haggis J., Salisbury N. A Companion to American Indian History. — New York: Blackwell Publishers, 2002. — 528 с. — ISBN 1405121319 .
• Hunt GT The wars of the Iroquois. A study in intertribal trade relation. — Madison, 1940.
• Munsell J. Annals of Albany. — Albany, 1951.

• Месоамерика глазами русских первопроходцев (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка) . Дата обращения 23 сентября 2009. Архивировано 12 февраля 2007 года.