Literature of Ancient Egypt

Hieroglyphics, Hieratics, and Demotics

By the period of the Early Kingdom at the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. the hieroglyphics and the italic form of hieratics have become well-established types of writing ^{[4] [3] [5] [6]} . Hieroglyphic writing consists of small drawings of objects ^{[4] [3] [6]} . For example, a hieroglyph depicting a gate valve (“se”) means the sound “s”. When this hieroglyph is combined with others, it represents abstract concepts, such as grief, happiness, beauty, and evil ^[3] . In the Palmer of Narmer , executed about 3100 BC. e., in the last phase of pre-dynastic Egypt , when writing the name of Narmer , hieroglyphics representing the catfish and chisel are used ^{[7] [4] [8]} .

The Egyptians called the hieroglyphs “the words of God” and used them for lofty purposes, for example, to communicate through funerary texts with the gods and spirits of the afterlife ^{[4] [3] [5] [2]} . Each hieroglyphic word meant a specific object, and embodied the essence of this object, recognizing it as created by the intervention of God's power and belonging to a larger cosmos ^[3] . Through the actions of the priestly rite, such as incense incense, the priest opened for reading to spirits and deities the hieroglyphs that adorn the surfaces of temples ^[4] . In the funerary texts of the Twelfth Dynasty, allegations appear that the distortion and even skipping of special hieroglyphs brought consequences, good or bad, for the deceased resident of the tomb, whose prosperity in the afterlife of the spirit depended on the texts. Distorting the hieroglyph of a poisonous snake or other dangerous animal removed the potential threat. However, the removal of each instance of the hieroglyphs depicting the name of the deceased, according to the beliefs of the Egyptians, deprived his soul of the ability to read funerary texts and condemned this soul to inanimate existence ^{[4] [3]} .

Hieratics is a simplified, cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs ^{[9] [10] [3] [8]} . Like hieroglyphs, hieratics was used in sacred and religious texts. By the first millennium BC e. calligraphic hieratics has become the typeface primarily used in funeral papyruses and temple scrolls ^[3] . While writing hieroglyphs required extreme accuracy, cursive hieratics was much faster and therefore used to keep records by scribes ^[4] . First of all, it served as cursive for non-Pharaonic, non-monumental and less official writings: letters, legal documents, poems, tax reports, medical texts, mathematical treatises and educational texts ^{[4] [2] [5] [6]} . There were two styles of hieratics: one was more calligraphic and was usually used for government reports and literary manuscripts, the other for informal accounts and letters ^{[2] [3]} .

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. hieroglyphics and hieratics were still used for royal, monumental, religious and funerary writings, while a new, even more cursive font was used for informal, everyday writing - demotic ^[3] . The final font adopted by the ancient Egyptians was Coptic writing - an adapted version of the Greek alphabet ^[3] . The Coptic alphabet became the standard in the 4th century A.D. e., when Christianity became the state religion of the entire Roman Empire; hieroglyphics were discarded as idolatrous images of pagan tradition, unsuitable for writing the biblical canon ^[3] .

Writing Tools and Materials

The texts were performed by a wide variety of devices. Along with the chisel necessary for cutting inscriptions on the stone, the reed pen was the main writing tool in ancient Egypt ^{[3] [6]} . The pens were dipped in pigments: black (charcoal) and red ( ocher ) for recording on papyrus scrolls - a thin material made by knitting strips of the core of the stems of the Cyperus papyrus plant, as well as on small ceramic or limestone shards ^{[3] [ 6] [10] [9]} . Papyrus scrolls are believed to be quite expensive commercial items, since many of them are palimpsests - manuscripts in which the older text is washed away or scraped off to make room for a new one ^[5] . This phenomenon, together with the practice of tearing off parts of papyrus documents for smaller letters, suggests that there were seasonal deficits caused by the limited growing season of the Cyperus papyrus plant ^[5] . This also explains the frequent use of ostracons and limestone flakes as a writing tool for shorter written works ^[5] . In addition to stone, ceramic ostracons and papyrus were written on wood, ivory and gypsum ^{[6] [5]} .

By the Roman period, the traditional Egyptian reed handle was replaced by the shorter, thicker reed handle with a split tip, common in the Greco-Roman world. In addition, the original Egyptian pigments were discarded in favor of lead- based Greek inks . The adoption of Greco-Roman writing instruments influenced Egyptian handwriting, as the hieratic signs became more widely spaced, with more circular strokes and with greater angular accuracy ^[3] .

Saving Written Materials

Egyptian underground tombs built in the desert provide perhaps the most suitable conditions for preserving papyrus documents. For example, there are many well-preserved funeral papyrus “ Books of the Dead, ” which were placed in tombs to serve as guidelines in the afterlife of the souls of deceased inhabitants. However, the placement of non-religious papyrus in the funeral chambers was accepted only at the end of the Middle Kingdom and in the first half of the New Kingdom. Thus, the majority of well-preserved literary papyruses belong to this period ^[11] .

Most settlements in ancient Egypt were located on the alluvium of the Nile floodplain. This humid environment is not favorable for the long-term preservation of papyrus documents. Archaeologists have found more papyrus documents in desert settlements on elevated land over floodplains and in settlements that did not have irrigation facilities, such as Elephantine , El Lahun and Al-Khiba ^[5] .

Texts on more durable material have also been lost. Inscribed stones were often reused as building materials, and ink on ostracons was preserved only in dry environments ^[12] . While papyrus rolls and bags were usually stored in boxes, ostracons were usually thrown away as garbage. One of the garbage pits, accidentally discovered in the village of the Ramessidian era, Deir al-Medina , contained many private letters on ostracons ^[5] . Here letters, hymns, fictional stories, recipes, receipts and wills were discovered ^[4] . Penelope Wilson compares this archaeological find to a modern landfill or waste container ^[4] . She notes that the inhabitants of Deir al-Medina were very literate according to ancient Egyptian standards, and warns that such finds are only "in rare circumstances and under certain conditions" ^{[4] [5]} .

John Tate emphasizes that " Egyptian materials have been preserved very unevenly <...> This unevenness applies both to time and space " ^[12] . He notes that while some texts were copied several times, others are known only in a single copy. For example, there is only one full copy of the “ Tales of the Shipwrecked ” era of the Middle Kingdom ^{[2] [12]} . However, this tale also appears in fragments of texts on ostracons during the New Kingdom ^[13] . Many other literary works are preserved only in fragments or in incomplete copies of the lost originals ^{[10] [1]} .

Stages of the Egyptian Language

Although the letter first appeared at the very end of the 4th millennium BC. e., it was used only to convey short names and inscriptions. Related texts did not appear until about 2600 BC. e., at the beginning of the Old Kingdom . This event marked the beginning of the first known phase of the Egyptian language : Ancient Egyptian . Ancient Egyptian remained only an oral language until about 2100 BC. e., when at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom , he turned into the Middle Egyptian ^[6] . Although Middle Egyptian was closely associated with ancient Egyptian, late Egyptian was significantly different in grammatical structure. Late Egyptian appeared as a spoken language as early as 1600 BC. e., but was not used as a written language until about 1300 BC. e. in the Amar period of the New Kingdom ^{[9] [13]} . In the VII century BC e. later Egyptian gradually turned into demotics , and although demotics remained a spoken language until the 5th century AD e., it was gradually replaced by the Coptic language , starting in the I century BC. e. ^[6] .

Hieratics was used along with hieroglyphs for writing in Ancient Egyptian and Middle Egyptian languages, becoming the dominant form of writing in the late Egyptian language ^[6] . By the time of the New Kingdom and in the rest of the history of ancient Egypt, Middle Egyptian became a classical language, reserved, as a rule, for reading and writing in hieroglyphs ^{[6] [9] [12] [14]} . Remained an oral language for higher forms of literature, such as historical documents, commemorative autobiographies, religious hymns and funerary spells ^{[6] [9] [14]} . However, in the late period the literature of the Middle Kingdom, written in Central Egyptian, was also rewritten by hieratics ^[12] .

Throughout ancient Egyptian history, reading and writing were the main requirements for service in state institutions, although government officials received help in everyday work from an elite, competent social group — scribes ^{[5] [4] [9]} . As can be seen from the papyrus Anastasi II of the Rammesid period, the scribes even had to “organize excavations of the lake and build a brick ramp, determine the number of men for transportation of the obelisk and organize the supply of the military mission” ^[4] . In addition, to serve in the government, scribes also provided services to illiterate people in the preparation of letters, advertising materials and legal documents ^[5] . Literate people are thought to account for only 1% of the population ^{[5] [2]} , the rest included illiterate peasants, shepherds, artisans and other workers ^[4] , as well as traders, who needed the help of scribes ^[4] . Привилегированный статус писца является предметом популярного в период Раммессидов учебного текста «Сатира профессий» (pSallier II), в которой автор высмеивал тяжесть профессий скульптора, столяра, гончара, рыбака, земледельца, гонца и др. в противовес профессии писца ^[4] .

Писцы были ответственны за сохранение, передачу и канонизацию литературной классики, а также за написание новых сочинений ^{[13] [2]} . Ученики, переписывающие классические произведения вроде « Сказание Синухе » и « Поучения Аменемхата », изучали правила написания и получали необходимые этические и моральные ценности, отличавшие класс писцов от других классов ^{[2] [4] [13]} . Большинство педагогических текстов, написанных на остраконах в период Среднего царства, были поучительными в жанре «поучения» (sb ³ jt) ^[15] . Рассказы, такие как «Сказание Синухе» и « Царь Неферкаре и генерал Сасенет », редко употреблялись для школьных упражнений до Нового царства ^[2] . Однако, эти рассказы тоже имели дидактический характер, и главные герои обычно воплощали в себе общепринятые добродетели эпохи, такие как любовь к родине или уверенность в своих силах ^[10] .

Грамотные египтяне вне писцовой профессии также имели доступ к классической литературе. Делая выговор сыну в письме, чертёжник Менена, живший в Дейр-эль-Медине во время XX династии , процитировал отрывки из произведений Среднего царства « Красноречивый поселянин » и « Сказки о потерпевшем кораблекрушение ». Писцы иногда отрицательно относились к такому любительскому использованию классики. В сатирическом письме Хори, современник Менены, сделал получателю выговор за цитирование « Поучения Харджесефа » в неприличной манере полуобразованного непрофессионала. Ганс-Вернер Фишер-Эльферт предполагает, что писцы особенно беспокоились злоупотреблением отрывков вне контекста, считая, что лучше заучивать и стараться понять классические произведения в целом ^[13] .

На базе скудного, но твёрдого доказательства в египетской литературе и искусстве можно утверждать, что существовала практика устного чтения текстов ^[2] ; например, на картинах погребальных лодок изображены люди, читающие папирусные тексты вслух ^[3] . Египетское слово šdj , «читать вслух», было связано с биографиями, письмами, и заклинаниями ^[2] . Пение ( ḥsj ) предназначалось для песен восхваления, о любви, погребальных плачей и определённых заклинаний ^[2] . В цикле рассказов I века до н. e. каждый рассказ начинается с фразы « голос, который перед фараоном », которая указывает, что текст читался вслух перед аудиторией ^[4] . В некоторых текстах упоминается вымышленная аудитория высокопоставленных чиновников и придворных людей, но возможно, что более широкая, неграмотная аудитория тоже принимала участие. Например, на погребальной стеле Сенусерта I (1971—1926 годы до н. э.) прямо говорится о том, что люди будут собираться и слушать как писец читает надпись стелы вслух ^[2] .

Литература также служила и религиозным целям. Начиная с « Текстов пирамид » Древнего царства, произведения погребальной литературы на стенах гробницы, на саркофагах и на папирусах , предназначались для защиты и воспитания души в загробной жизни. В эти надписи входили магические заклинания, заговоры и лирические гимны ^{[3] [16]} .

Хотя созданием литературы занимались преимущественно писцы-мужчины, кажется, что некоторые тексты были написаны женщинами . Например, сохранилось несколько писем, посланных и полученных женщинами, и в разных текстах говорится о женщинах, пишущих письма ^[5] . Однако Эдвард Ф. Уент утверждает, что даже в этих случаях возможно, что женщины не писали сами, а нанимали писцов ^[5] .

Древнеегипетская художественная литература не была зафиксирована в письменной форме до начала двенадцатой династии Среднего царства ^{[2] [10] [12] [9]} . Тексты Старого царства использовались главным образом для поддержания божественного культа, для сохранения души в загробной жизни и для личного бухгалтерского учёта. Только в Среднем царстве тексты были написаны с целями развлечения и удовлетворения интеллектуального любопытства ^[12] . Паркинсон и Моренц также полагают, что письменные произведения Среднего царства являлись транскрипциями устной литературы Древнего царства ^{[2] [12]} . По крайней мере известно, что некоторые устные стихи были перенесены в письменную литературу. Например, песни носителей носилок были сохранены в письменной форме в могильных надписях Древнего царства ^[12] .

Датирование текстов с помощью палеографических и орфографических методов проблематично из-за различных стилей иератического письма. Более того, некоторые авторы, возможно, скопировали характерный стиль старших архетипов ^[2] . Места действия вымышленных рассказов часто были удалены во времени и пространстве; использование современных сюжетов в художественной литературе было относительно недавним явлением ^{[2] [12]} . Например, авторы Среднего царства могли писать вымышленные тексты мудрости, действия которых происходят в золотом веке Древнего царства (например, « Поучения Кагемни », « Поучения Птаххотепа » и пролог «Неферти») или могли создавать действия, разворачивающиеся в более хаотической атмосфере Первого переходного периода (например, « Поучение Мерикара » и « Красноречивый крестьянин » ^{[2] [12]} . Другие рассказы разворачиваются в неопределимой эпохе и содержат вневременные темы ^[12] .

Паркинсон пишет, что почти все литературные тексты писались под псевдонимами, а часто ложно приписывались к таким известным людям более ранней истории, как фараоны и визири ^[2] . Только произведения литературных жанров поучения и жалобного дискурса иногда приписывались к историческим авторам. Тексты в таких жанрах как «повествовательные рассказы» никогда не писались под именем известной исторической личности ^{[2] [13]} . Тейт утверждает, что в классический период египетские писцы выражали своё мнение об истории роли писцов в авторстве текстов, но в поздний период религиозная элита в храмах контролировала интерпретацию авторства ^[12] .

There were a few exceptions to the rule for using aliases. The present authors of some texts of the Ramessidian period were recognized, but these cases were rare ^[2] . Authors of private and sometimes exemplary letters were usually recognized. Private letters could be used in court as evidence, since each person’s handwriting was considered unique ^[5] . Private letters received or written by the pharaoh were sometimes inscribed in hieroglyphs on stone monuments in honor of the monarchy, and pharaonic decrees inscribed on stone steles were often made public ^[5] .

The only genre of literature directly mentioned by the ancient Egyptians was the teaching genre ^{[2] [13] [10]} . The rest of the genre classification was made by modern Egyptologists ^{[13] [10]} . Most texts were written in verse, but some narrative stories were written in prose ^[1] . Most of the ancient Egyptian verses were in the form of couplets , but sometimes three- verses and quatrains were also used ^[1] .

Educational Literature

The genre of “teachings” (or “directions”, “instructions”), as well as the genre of “reflective discourse”, can be grouped within the broader corpus of literature of wisdom that was widespread in antiquity in the Middle East ^[2] . The genre is didactic in nature and is believed to have been part of the scribe's education program in the Middle Kingdom ^[2] . However, teachings often include narrative elements of an entertaining nature ^[2] . There is evidence that the teachings were not created primarily for educational use, but for ideological purposes ^[2] . For example, Adolf Ehrman writes that the fictional teaching of Amenemhat I (c. 1991-1962 BC) to his sons “goes far beyond school philosophy, and there is no relation to school in warning his children to be faithful to the king” ^[9] . While narrative literature (such as the " Eloquent Peasant ") emphasizes the theme of an individual hero challenging society and accepted ideologies, the texts of the teaching, on the contrary, emphasize the need to comply with accepted dogmas ^[17] .

The key words in teaching texts are “know” (rh) and “teach” (sba.yt) ^[2] . These texts usually have the template name “teaching made by the Xth for Ya”, where X can be an authoritative figure (for example, a vizier or a pharaoh), providing moral guidance to his son or his sons ^[10] . It is sometimes difficult to determine how many fictitious recipients there are, since the singular and plural are sometimes used in the same text ^{[2] [9] [10] [12]} .

Examples of the teachings genre include Teachings of Ptahhotep , Teachings of Kagemni , Teachings of Merikar , Teachings of Amenemhat , Teachings of Hargedef , Teachings of the Loyal Subject , and Teachings of Amenemope ^{[2] [10]} . The instructive texts that have been preserved from the Middle Kingdom are mainly written on papyrus ^[2] , although fragmentary versions of them are available on ostracons and tablets ^[18] .

The earliest example of a wooden blackboard with a copy of the educational text ( teachings of Ptahhotep ) dates back to the XVIII dynasty ^[2] . The teachings of Ptahhotep (whole) and Kagemni (the last two pages) are found on the papyrus of Priss , written during the XII dynasty of the Middle Kingdom (circa 1991-1783 BC) ^{[19] [2] [10]} . The “ teaching of the loyal subject ” was preserved on the funeral stele of the treasurer Sechetepibre of the XII dynasty ^[2] and in 69 copies of the New Kingdom ^[18] . The teachings of Merikar, Amenemhet and Hargejef are genuine texts of the Middle Kingdom, but are preserved in copies of the New Kingdom ^{[2] [10]} . Amenemope's teaching is a compilation of the New Kingdom ^[10] .

Narrative Literature

Tales and short stories are probably the least represented genre from the surviving literature of the Middle Kingdom and the Middle Egyptian language ^[2] . From the Rammesid period of the New Kingdom to the late period of Ancient Egypt, however, narrative literature accounts for the majority of surviving literary works ^[13] . Among the important stories are the works “ The Tale of the Court of Tsar Cheops ”, “ King Neferkara and General Sasenet ”, “The Eloquent Peasant ”, “The Tale of Sinuha ” and “ The Tale of the Shipwrecked ” ^{[2] [10] [9 ] ]} . The narrative corps of the New Kingdom includes “The Quarrel of Apepi and Sequenere”, “The Capture of Jupe ”, “The Doomed Prince ”, “ The Tale of Two Brothers ”, and “The Travels of Unu-Amon ” ^{[9] [10]} . Among the stories from the 1st millennium BC. Oe., written by demotics, one can name the story “Steles of Famine” (written during the Ptolemaic , but with a plot about the Ancient Kingdom), and cycles of stories of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods that transform famous historical figures such as Haemuas ( XIX dynasty ) and Inaros ( first Persian period) in fictional, legendary heroes ^{[14] [20]} . Prior to this, in stories in the New Egyptian language, authors most often used divine heroes and mythological places ^[10] .

Satirical literature is presented in a number of annalistic monuments and drawings on papyrus and ostracons : for example, “ Satire on the profession ” of the Middle Kingdom and the satirical papyrus of the Ramessids era (c. 1150 BC) ^[21] .

Weeping, talking, dialogue and prophecy

The genre of the Middle Kingdom of “ prophetic texts”, “ lamentations ”, “conversations”, “ dialogues ” or “apocalyptic literature” ^{[2] [10] [20]} includes such works as “The Ipuver's Speech ”, “ The Neferti Prophecy ” and “ Conversation of the Disappointed with your Ba ” (apparently related to the First Transition). As far as we know, this genre had no precedent in the Old Kingdom, and no original works were written in the New Kingdom ^[12] . However, works like The Neferti Prophecy were often copied in the Ramessidic period of the New Kingdom ^[10] , when this genre of the Middle Kingdom was canonized but discontinued ^[2] . Egyptian prophetic literature was revived in the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty and in the Roman period, when such works as the “Demotic Chronicle”, “The Oracle of the Lamb”, “The Oracle of the Potter” and two prophetic texts in which the main character is Nectaneb II (c. 360) were written —343 BC) ^{[2] [20]} . Along with instructive texts, these texts fall into the category of literature of wisdom distributed in the Middle East ^[2] .

• Scribes of Ancient Egypt
• List of Ancient Egyptian Papyrus
• Education in Ancient Egypt
• Justice in Ancient Egypt

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