Polyphony [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] ( Latin polyphonia , ancient Greek πολυυνο - literally “polyphony”, from ancient Greek πολυ-, πολύς - “many” + other Greek φωνή - “sound”) is a warehouse of polyphonic music, determined by the functional equality of individual voices (melodic lines, melodies in the broad sense) of polyphonic texture . In the musical play of the polyphonic warehouse (for example, in the canon of Joskin Depre , in the fugue of JS Bach ) the voices are equal in compositional and technical (equal to all voices methods of motive-melodic development) and logical (equal bearers of "musical thought") relations. The word "polyphony" also refers to the musical-theoretical discipline, which is taught in courses of secondary and higher music education for composers and musicologists. The main task of the discipline of polyphony is the practical study of polyphonic compositions.
Content
Different variations of stress in the word "polyphony"
The stress in the Russian word "polyphony" is fluctuating. In the Dictionary of Church Slavonic and Russian , published by the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1847, the only emphasis on the second “o” is given [6] . Russian general-language dictionaries of the 2nd half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, as a rule, put the only stress on the second syllable from the end [7] [8] [9] . Musicians (composers, performers, educators, and musicologists) usually emphasize “o”; The Great Russian Encyclopedia (2014) [10] and “Musical Orthographic Dictionary” (2007) [11] adhere to the same orthoepic norm. Some profile dictionaries and encyclopedias allow orthoepic variants [12] [13] .
Polyphony and harmony
The concept of polyphony (as a warehouse) is not correlative to the concept of harmony (pitch structure), therefore it is fair to speak, for example, of polyphonic harmony. With all the functional (musical-semantic, musical-logical) independence of individual voices, they are always coordinated vertically. In a polyphonic play (for example, in Perotin's organum, in Machete’s motet, Gesualdo’s Madrigal), the ear outlines consonances and dissonances, chords and (in ancient polyphony) concordances , and their connections, which manifest themselves in the development of music in time, obey the logic of fret Any polyphonic piece possesses a sign of the integrity of the pitch structure, musical harmony .
Polyphony and Polyphony
In some Western traditions, the same word is used to denote polyphony (more than one voice in the musical “vertical”), for example, the adjective polyphonic in German musicology (in German, on the contrary, there are adjectives mehrstimmig and polyphon) - in such cases, the specificity of the use of words can be established only from the context.
In Russian science, the attribute "polyphonic" refers to the specifics of the music warehouse (for example, "polyphonic play", "composer-polyphonist"), while the attribute "polyphonic" does not contain such specific clarification (for example, " chanson - polyphonic song", "Bach - the author of polyphonic treatments chorals "). In modern non-special literature (as a rule, due to “blind” translation from English) the word “polyphony” is used as an exact synonym for the word “polyphony” (for example, copywriters of advertising texts find “polyphony” in mobile phones), and in this (non-terminological) The use of stress is often placed on the penultimate syllable - polyphony.
Typology
Polyphony is divided into types:
- Sub-vocal polyphony, in which, together with the main melody, its subtitles sound, that is, slightly different variants (this coincides with the concept of heterophony ). Characteristic of the Russian folk song.
- Simulation polyphony, in which the main theme sounds first in one voice, and then, possibly, with changes, appears in other voices (there can be several main themes). The form in which the theme is repeated without change is called a canon . The pinnacle of the forms in which the melody changes from voice to voice is the fugue .
- Contrast-themed polyphony (or polyelodism ), at which different melodies simultaneously sound.
- Hidden polyphony - hiding thematic intonations in the texture of the work. Applies to free-style polyphony, starting with JS Bach’s small polyphonic cycles.
Individually characteristic types
Some composers, especially intensively using polyphonic techniques, developed a specific style characteristic of their work. In such cases, they say, for example, “Bach polyphony”, “Stravinsky polyphony”, “Myaskovsky polyphony”, “Shchedrin's polyphony” [14] , Ligeti's “micro polyphony” , etc.
Historical essay
The first preserved examples of European polyphonic music are non-parallel and melismatic organums (9th — 11th centuries). In the 13th — 14th centuries, polyphony was most clearly manifested in the motet . In the XV - XVI centuries, polyphony became the norm for the vast majority of artifacts of composer music, both ecclesiastical (polyphonic) and secular. Polyphonic music reached its peak in the work of Handel and Bach in the 17th and 18th centuries (mainly in the form of fugues ). In parallel (beginning approximately from the 16th century), a homophonic warehouse developed rapidly, during the time of the Viennese classics and in the era of Romanticism, which clearly dominated the polyphonic one. Another rise in interest in polyphony began in the second half of the XIX century . Imitation polyphony, focusing on Bach and Handel, was often used by composers of the 20th century ( Hindemith , Shostakovich , Stravinsky , etc.).
Strict letter and free letter
In the polyphonic music of the pre-classical era, researchers distinguish two main trends of polyphonic composition: strict writing , or strict style ( him. Strenger Satz , Italian. Contrappunto osservato , strict counterpoint ), and free letter , or free style ( him. Freier Satz , eng. . free counterpoint ). Until the first decades of the 20th century. in Russia, the terms “counterpoint of strict letter” and “counterpoint of free letter” were used in the same sense (in Germany this pair of terms is used to this day).
The definitions “strict” and “free” referred primarily to the use of dissonance and to voice science . In a strict letter, the preparation and resolution of dissonance was governed by extensive rules, the violation of which was regarded as the technical incompetence of the composer. Similar rules were also developed for voting in general, in which the aesthetic canon was balanced , for example, the balance of the interval jump and its subsequent filling. At the same time, the list and parallelism of consonances made were banned.
In free writing, the rules for the use of dissonance and the rules for voting (for example, the prohibition of the parallelism of octaves and quint) generally continued to operate, although they were applied more freely. Most clearly, “freedom” manifested itself in the fact that dissonance began to be used without preparation (the so-called unprepared dissonance). This and some other assumptions in the free letter were justified, on the one hand, by the musical rhetoric characteristic of the new era (for example, it was justified by a “dramatic” reading and other violations of the rules). On the other hand, a greater freedom of voice was determined by the historical necessity - polyphonic music began to be written according to the laws of the new major minor key , in which the triton became part of the dominant septum chord , which is key to this sound-pitch system.
The "era of strict writing" (or strict style) includes music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries), implying, first of all, the church music of the Franco-Flemish polyphonists (Zhosken, Okegem, Obreht, Villart, Lasso, etc.) and palestrins. In theory, the compositional norms of polyphony of strict style were determined by J. Tszarino . Masters of strict style owned all the means of counterpoint, developed almost all forms of imitation and canon, widely used methods of transforming the original theme ( circulation , cancer , increase , decrease ). In harmony, strict writing rested on a system of diatonic modal modes .
Baroque until the XVIII century. inclusive polyphony historians called the "era of free style." The increased role of instrumental music stimulated the development of choral processing, polyphonic variations (including passacaglia ), as well as fantasies , toccata , canzone , ricercar , from which by the middle of the 17th century fugue formed. In harmony, the basis of polyphonic music, written according to the laws of free style, became a major minor key (“harmonic tonality”). The largest representatives of the polyphony of free style are I. S. Bach and G. F. Handel.
Polyphony and polyphony in literature
In the Russian language XIX - early XX century. in the same modern polyphony, the term polyphony was used (along with the term “polyphony”) ( [1] ). In literary XX century. ( M. M. Bakhtin and his followers) the word “polyphony” is used in the sense of a new genre, which is characterized not only by multiplicity, but also by “polyphony of full-fledged voices”, that is, “a plurality of equally authoritative ideological positions”. Bakhtin believes that polyphonism is characteristic of Dostoevsky as a whole, but it is most fully manifested in large novels, where there is a place for revealing the characters and the corresponding plot-compositional structure [15] .
In the polyphonic novel, the words of the hero about the world and oneself also have the same meaning as the author’s words. At the same time, Bakhtin especially stipulates the incompleteness of the world of the work: “everything is still ahead and always will be ahead”. However, as N.D. Tamarchenko, with such a concept, there is a contradiction between the incompleteness of the inner world of the characters and the completeness of each work as a text, and this Bakhtin does not explain, nor does the system that forms the polyphonic unity of the novel. Therefore, philologists often use the concept of “polyphonic novel” not strictly, but figuratively, in a wide range of meanings [16] .
See also
- Counterpoint
- Sutarines
Notes
- ↑ The Great Russian Encyclopedia (T.26. Moscow: BDT, 2014, p.702) fixes in this word the only emphasis on the “o”.
- ↑ Musical spelling dictionary (M .: Modern music, 2007, p. 248) shows only one stress - on “o”.
- ↑ M.V. Zarva . Russian word stress (2001, p. 388) fixes the only stress on “and”
- ↑ The Great Dictionary of the Russian Language (ch. Ed. S. A. Kuznetsov. Norint 2000. p. 902) fixes the only stress on “and”
- ↑ Superanskaya A.V. Emphasis on borrowed words in modern Russian (Rus.) . - Science, 1968. - p. 212. fixes the only emphasis on the “and” with the proviso that “in the speech of the musicologist K. Adjemov the emphasis was on the“ o ”.
- ↑ 1 2 Dictionary of Church Slavonic and Russian language . - SPb. : The Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1847. - T. III: Op. - p. 314.
- ↑ Moscow University Bulletin: Philology (Russian) . - 1966. - p . 79 .. The author of the article? Article title?
- ↑ M.V. Zarva. Russian word stress (2001, p. 388)
- ↑ Large Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian language (ch. Ed. S. A. Kuznetsov. Norint 2000. p. 902)
- ↑ Fraenov V.P. Polyphony // Big Russian Encyclopedia . T.26. Moscow: BDT, 2014, p. 702.
- ↑ Musical spelling dictionary. M .: Modern music, 2007, p.248. ISBN 5-93138-095-0 .
- ↑ Musical study dictionary / T. V. Taktošova, N. V. Basko, E. V. Barinova. - Science, 2003. - p. 229. - ISBN 5-89349-527-6 .
- ↑ Protopopov V. V. Polyphony // Musical Encyclopedia / ed. Yu. V. Keldysh. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1978. - T. 4 . - p . 344 .
- ↑ See, for example, the textbook by I. K. Kuznetsov “Polyphony in Russian music of the 20th century” (2012).
- ↑ Zakharov V.N. Dostoevsky's system of genres: Typology and poetics. L .: Izd. Linen. Un-ta., 1985. - p. 138.
- ↑ Tamarchenko N.D. On the principles of the typology of the novel in the works of M.M. Bakhtin / The nature of the artistic whole and the literary process. - Kemerovo: KemSU, 1980. - p. 27-34.
Literature
- Motte D. de la . Kontrapunkt. Ein Lese- und Arbeitsbuch. Kassel, Basel: Bärenreiter, 1981; 9te Aufl., 2014.
- Evdokimova Yu. K. Polyphony of the Middle Ages. X — XIV centuries. M., 1983 (History of Polyphony, Vol.1).
- Fedotov V. A. The Beginning of Western European Polyphony. Vladivostok, 1985.