Lucius Licinius Crassus

Origin

Lucius Licinius belonged to one of the most notable plebeian clans of Rome. Licinias were part of the very first collegium of people's tribunes and reached consulate in 364 BC. e. True, in the interval between 361 and 236 years BC. e. they are never mentioned in Capitoline fasts . The beginning of the next period in the history of the genus is connected with Publius Licinius, who supposedly lived during the First Punic War , whose eldest sons received the nickname Crassus ( Tolstoy ^[1] ), which became a cognom for his posterity ^[2] .

The fasts call the names of the father and grandfather Lucius Licinius Crassus - Lucius and Gai, respectively ^[3] . Nothing is known of Lucius the Elder ^[4] , and Guy is presumably the consul of 168 BC. e. and the nephew of the first Crassus consul, Publius Licinius Crassus Diva , a colleague of Scipio Africanus in 205 BC. e. According to this genealogy, a contemporary of Lucius Licinius Publius Licinius Crassus (consul 97 BC) was his second cousin ^[5] .

The early years

According to Cicero, Lucius Licinius was born at the consulate of Guy Lelius the Wise and Quintus Servilius Cepion and three years later than Marc Anthony Orator , that is, in 140 BC. e. ^{[6] [7] [8]} It is known that his teacher was Lucius Celius Antipater , the first rhetorician among Roman historians and friend of Guy Lelius the Wise ^[9] , who later became a friend and adult Crassus ^[10] .

In his youth, Lucius Licinius actively developed his eloquence, doing for this both translations from Greek and retelling of Latin texts - primarily verses by Quintus Ennius and speeches by Guy Sempronius Gracchus ^[11] . At the same time, the anticologist N. Hepke believes that Crassus probably didn’t hear the speeches of Gracchus, although he was 17-19 years old during the tribune of Guy Sempronius and had to attend the Forum during these years ^[7] ). In addition, Lucius Licinius actively studied civil law . In many ways, Crassus' interest in this branch of knowledge was associated with his friendship with Quintus Mucius Stcevola Pontiff ^[7] , who became a lawyer in accordance with family tradition ^[12] .

In 119 BC e. Crassus accused the consular Guy Papirius Carbon , "a man of noble and eloquent" ^[13] . The essence of the accusation is unknown, but Lucius Licinius in his speech recalled Carbona's attempt in 131 BC. e. to legitimize the re-election of the people's stands for several years in a row and rumors about Carbon's involvement in the death of Publius Cornelius Scipio Emilian . In addition, Crassus exposed Karbon as a renegade, since Gaius Papyrius first belonged to the Grakhan “party”, and then supported Lucius Opimius ^[14] . As a result, Carbon was forced to commit suicide, and Lucius Licinius “earned his talent not only recognition but also admiration” ^[15] . True, Crassus later regretted that he made this accusation: for the rest of his life he felt surrounded by enemies who carefully watched him and waited for the slightest mistake to strike back ^[16] . One of these enemies was the son of Carbon - Guy Papyri Carbon Arvin ^[17] .

Judging by this episode of the biography, Lucius Licinius in his youth was on the side of the "people's party". By that time, he was married to the daughter of Quintus Mucius Stcevola Avgur , who was a second cousin to his friend Stcevola Pontific, granddaughter of Guy Lelius the Wise and niece to the wife of Guy Fanny ; thus, Crassus became part of that group of Roman nobles, which ten years earlier constituted the environment of Scipio Emilian ^[17] .

In 118 BC e. Lucius Licinius advocated the organization of the Narbonne colony in Transalpine Gaul . This colony was considered as a replacement for one of the main projects of Guy Gracchus (a Roman settlement on the site of Carthage ), and the Senate was against ^[18] . Crassus made a speech on this subject, which Cicero called "more mature than you might expect from his age" ^[19] . The law was signed, and Lucius Licinius became one of the triumphs involved in organizing the new colony ^[20] . In 114 BC e. Crassus defended in court his cousin - the vestal vestress Licinius, who was accused of adultery with two other vestals. According to Cicero, in this case Lucius Licinius “was especially eloquent” ^[19] ; nevertheless, his client was sentenced to death ^[21] .

The beginning of cursus honorum

Most of the magistracy Lucius Licinius held together with his friend Stcevola. The first step of his cursus honorum - the questura - is dated at the latest 109 year BC. e. ^[22] Crassus and Stcevola spent their quest year in Asia . The name of the governor under whom they served is not known, but the anticologist G. Sumner suggests that it could be Mark Aurelius Scavr . This noble occupied the praetor position no later than 111 BC. e., and his son in the 90s was a quaestor all in the same Asia, which can serve as evidence of old tribal ties with this province. Thus, Skavr could be the prophet of Asia and the head of Crassus and Stcevola in 110 BC. e. ^[23]

Lucius Licinius used his stay in the East to continue his education: he met with learned people, including Metrodor Skepsy ^[24] , and on the way back from Macedonia drove to Athens . Being late for the Mysteries for two days, Crassus demanded to repeat the rite specifically for him, but was refused, which was very angry. This story made him leave Athens before he first planned ^[25] , but Crassus still managed to listen to the “best scientists” of the city ^[24] . Among the latter, academician Harmad stood out, under whose leadership Lucius Licinius significantly expanded his knowledge of Greek philosophy ^[21] .

Lucius Licinius tribunate is dated precisely - 107 year BC. e. ^[26] Sources report that Crassus did not commit anything memorable this year, and “if he had not had lunch with the spokesman Granius in this position and if Lucius had not told about this twice, we would not have known that he was popular tribune ” ^[19] . Stcevola held the same position a year later, and just as Quintus Mucius presided at the assembly, his friend made a speech in defense of the judicial law of Quintus Servilius Cepion ^[6] .

In connection with the events of 106 BC. e. in historiography, Crassus’s transition from the “People’s Party” to the “Senate” is noted ^[27] . Consul Tsepion proposed to form judicial boards again from senators, and not from horsemen, as has been done since the days of Guy Gracchus; according to one hypothesis, senators should now own half of all the seats in the colleges ^[28] , and on the other - all the seats ^[29] . Lucius Licinius made a speech in support of this initiative, despite its extreme unpopularity among riders and plebs, and achieved its adoption as a law ( lex Servilia de repetundis ). This speech contained "praise to the Senate" and many harsh reviews of the riders. Later, professional prosecutor Mark Junius Brutus tried during the trial of a certain Gnei Plank to incriminate Crassus in inconsistency, citing alternately his speeches about the Narbon colony and the law of Servilius. Lucius Licinius tried to prove that in both cases he said what was required based on the materials of the case ^{[30] [31]} .

The attacks of Crassus against Guy Memmius , the people's tribune of 111 BC, may also refer to the same period ^[27] . e., for several years waging a struggle against the Senate. Cicero mentions the speech of Lucius Licinius, which says, "as if Memmy" bit Larg's elbow "when he had a fight with him in Tarracina because of a girlfriend" (a man named Larg is not mentioned anywhere else). True, it immediately becomes clear that this story, emphasizing the temper and depravity of Memmiah, is the fruit of fiction ^[32] . In addition, Crassus, in a speech before the national assembly (for what reason it was made, is unknown ^[27] ) ridiculed the arrogance of the ex-tribune: “Memmia seems so great to himself that, going down to the square, he tilts his head to go under the Fabius Arch " ^[33] .

The next stage in the career of Lucius Licinius - edility - is dated 103 BC. e. ^[34] or the period between 105 and 103 years BC. e. ^[35] . As an aedile, Crassus organized, together with Stcevola, magnificent games ^{[36] [37] [38]} , at which the Roman public first saw lions ^[39] . In 100 BC e., at the decisive moment of the senate’s struggle with the tribune of Lucius Appuleius Saturninus , Lucius Licinius, among other aristocrats, came to comitia to take part in an open battle with the “rebels” ^{[40] [41]} . Subsequently, no later than 98 BC. e., he was a praetor ^[42] .

Consulate and Consulate

In 95 BC e. Lucius Licinius became consul. Sources say that during the election campaign, he was ashamed to go around the forum in the presence of his father-in-law, begging voters to vote for him ^[43] - “and all because he respected the dignity of Stcevola than his white toga” ^[44] . However, Crassus won the election ^[45] . Together with his long-standing colleague Stcevola, he passed lex Licinia Mucia de civibus redigundis , a law that carried out a rigorous investigation into all the Italians living in Rome who called themselves Roman citizens ^[46] . Those who could not prove their citizenship were expelled from the city ^[47] . Cicero suggested that the consuls could push such a step into the indignation of Prince Senate Marcus Emilius Skavre in connection with the participation of false citizens in the work of the national assembly ^[48] ; in historiography, a hypothesis was put forward that Crassus and Stcevola carried out the assignment of the “faction” of the Metells , who thus fought against Guy Maria ^[49] . Probably, such a tightening of the law was one of the immediate reasons for the outbreak of the Allied war four years later ^[50] .

Cicero dates the consular year of Crassus to the process of Quintus Servilius Cepion the Younger . This noble was formally accused of “insulting the greatness of the Roman people”, but was actually brought to trial as an adherent of the Senate “party” and an enemy of Saturnin ^[51] . Crassus, who once supported the father of Cepion, made a defensive speech in this process. According to Cicero, it was “too long for meritorious speech in defense and short for ordinary judicial” ^[52] ; nevertheless, Cepion was acquitted ^[53] .

After the consular term expired, Lucius Licinius became proconsul of Gaul (possibly Cisalpine ) ^{[54] [51]} . He destroyed the robbers in his province, and the senate "out of courtesy" gave him a triumph , but then Crassus met resistance from Stcevola. The latter “did not stop to, based on concern for the welfare of the state, and not his colleague, impose a ban on the decision of the Senate” ^[55] (there is a possibility that this happened back in 95 BC, during consulates of Lucius Licinius and Quintus Mucius ^[45] ). This episode shows that the relationship between constant colleagues was quite complex ^[56] .

When the legacy of Stcevola Publius Rutilius Rufus was brought to trial on a clearly trumped-up charge of abuse of power (the traditional date of the process is 92 BC ^[57] ), Crassus offered him his services. But Rutilius chose to defend himself on his own and was convicted ^[58] . There is a hypothesis in historiography that, in fact, Lucius Licinius could stand behind the accusers, and that his goal was to avenge Stcevola for the lost triumph ^[59] .

Censorship

The pinnacle of Crassus’s career was censorship of 92 BC. e., joint with Gnei Domitius Agenobarb ^[60] . Perhaps these two nobles were colleagues before: there are denarii on which their names are embossed along with the names of five more Romans. According to one version, these coins date back to censorship; on the other, we should talk about a special commission that worked somewhere in the interval between 109 and 104 years BC. e. ^[61] .

Together, the censors issued an edict prohibiting the teaching of the art of eloquence in Latin. His text was preserved in one of the writings of Suetonius :

It reached us that there are people who have brought science of a new kind, young people are going to their schools, they adopted the name of Latin rhetoricians, and there young people laze around for days. Our ancestors established what children should be taught and which schools to attend; innovations created contrary to the custom and disposition of their ancestors seem wrong and undesirable. Therefore, we consider it necessary to express our opinion for those who contain schools, and for those who are used to attending them, that we don’t like it.

- Suetonius. On grammar and rhetoric, 25 ^[62]

The formal justification for this ban was both the “lounging” of young people in Latin schools and the superficiality of the education received there. In historiography, an assumption was made of possible political reasons: Guy Marius, who was losing in the 90s BC, may have been associated with the Latin education system. e. their supporters in the Senate ^[63] . It is believed that this initiative was anti-democratic in nature ^[64] . But in any case, the prohibition of Latin education had no real consequences ^[63] .

There was an open conflict between the censors, reinforced by the complete dissimilarity of their characters. Agenobarb was a gloomy, stern, rude man, and Crassus was mocking, gentle, refined and a little frivolous ^[65] . The clash was triggered by the overly luxurious decoration of Crassus' mansion on the Palatine : Lucius Licinius was the first of the Romans to decorate his house, whose value was estimated at six million sisters , with statues made of Gimetian marble. Gnei Domitius before the national assembly accused his colleague of effeminacy and wastefulness, and he used the “science of wit” in defense. According to Cicero, embedded in the mouth of Marc Anthony in his treatise On the Orator, “Domitius was so important, so adamant that his objections were clearly much better to dispel as a joke than to smash them with force” ^[66] .

Fending off the criticism of Agenobarb, Crassus declared, “that there is nothing to be surprised at his copper beard if his tongue is made of iron and his heart made of lead” ^[67] . Gnei Domitius told the people about a blatant, in his opinion, case: Crassus had a moray eel , who had died shortly before, and Lucius Licinius mourned and ordered her to be buried. Crassus responded to this that he did not really have the stamina of his colleague: after all, he did not utter a single tear, burying his three wives ^[68] . Cicero, who listened to this skirmish, later admitted that not a single speech at the forum aroused more noisy approval from the people ^[69] . This was Crassus' last appearance before the general public. ^[70]

Death

The last year of Crassus's life (91 BC) fell on the tribune of Mark Livius Druze . This politician tried to pursue a whole course of reforms, involving the restoration of Senate control over the courts, an increase in grain subsidies for the Roman poor, the distribution of all state lands and the provision of citizenship to the Italics. Cicero calls Lucius Licinius one of the chief advisers to Drusus, along with Mark Emilius Skavr ^[71] ; in historiography there is an assumption that Crassus and Scavr are the authors of the plan of transformations ^[72] . Lucius Licinius provided Druze with the support of the majority in the Senate and himself became a member of the commission engaged in the distribution of state lands ^[73] .

The beginnings of Druze met with active resistance, led by Quintus Servilius Cepion and Consul Lucius Marcius Philippe . The last one made a sensational statement on September 12: he said before the popular assembly, “that he should seek a more reasonable state council, because with the current Senate he is not able to rule the republic” ^[74] . Druz convened the Senate the next day, and there Crassus made his last speech, which Cicero called the “swan song” ^[75] . Lucius Licinius “mourned the bitter fate of the orphaned senate” and the republic, which the consul, he said, wanted to deprive almost the last support. Philip, having lost control of himself, threatened the speaker with a penalty from him on bail (this measure was usually applied to senators who missed meetings). The answer to this was the famous words:

Well, since you considered the rights of my entire estate as collateral and cut them in the face of the Roman people, do you think to frighten me with these pledges? It’s not your property that you need to cut, if you want to pacify Crassus: you need to cut off my tongue for this! But even if it was torn out, my very breath will glorify my freedom and refute your arbitrariness!

- Cicero. About the Speaker, III, 4 ^[76]

The Senate unanimously supported Crassus decree, which said: "The Roman people should not doubt that the Senate is always faithful to the care of the welfare of the republic." But during the speech, Lucius Licinius felt a pain in his chest, and he began to shiver. Upon returning home, the speaker had a fever. After 6 days, September 19, 91 BC. e., he died of pneumonia ^{[77] [78]} . His death to a large extent predetermined the defeat of Drusus ^[79] .

Lucius Licinius was married to Mucia, daughter of Quintus Mucius Stcevola Augur and second cousin of his friend Quintus Mucius Stcevola Pontifica ^[80] . Two daughters were born in this marriage: one of them became the wife of Publius Cornelius Scipio Naziki , the second - the wife of Gaius Maria the Younger ^[5] . With his will, Crassus adopted a grandson from his eldest daughter, named Lucius Licinius Crassus Scipio ^[81] . Another grandson of Crassus was Quintus Cecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nazika ^[5] .

During his lifetime and the first decades after his death, Lucius Licinius was considered one of the two best Roman speakers along with Mark Anthony. Moreover, Crassus was always put in first place ^[82] . He was distinguished from Anthony by a wide education and deep knowledge in the field of law ^[83] , which he carefully concealed ^[84] . Moreover, his language was very precise and elegant, the presentation was clear; according to Cicero, "when he talked about civil law, about justice, about good, arguments and examples came to him in abundance." An abundance of such arguments and examples, Crassus “completely suppressed” his friend Stcevola in the process of the Curia Mania case ^[85] . In his speeches Crassus brilliantly combined pathos of all kinds with wit ^[86] . He was characterized by a virtuosic rhythmic style ( Asianism ), in which the prosaic text was divided into rhythmic clauses ^{[87] [88]} .

Crassus came well prepared; they were waiting for him, they listened to him, and from the very beginning of his invariably thought-out speech it became clear that he had not deceived expectations. There were no unnecessary body movements, or sudden changes in voice, or walking back and forth, or frequent trampling of a foot; passionate speech, and sometimes angry and full of just indignation; a lot of humor, but worthy; and, which is especially difficult, splendor combined with his brevity. And in the ability to exchange remarks with the enemy, he had no equal.

- Cicero. Brutus, 158 ^[89]

Cicero built a characterization of Lucius Licinius to a large extent by comparison with his colleague and frequent opponent in the courts of Stcevola. From his point of view, Crassus is “the best lawyer among the speakers,” while Stsevola is “the best speaker among the lawyers” ^[90] ; Crassus is “the most laconic of the graceful”, and Stcevola is “the most elegant of the laconic” ^[91] .

Once (probably in 93 BC ^[51] ), Stcevola and Crassus represented the two warring parties in the process of Curia Mania. It was a lawsuit about the inheritance, considered in the court of centumvirs . Quintus Mucius made a very serious speech in which he insisted on the letter of the law. Quoting old legislative norms, he tried to convince the court that Maniy Kuriy could not be the heir, since the will says: “If the foster child dies before it reaches adulthood,” and the foster child was never born. Crassus chose a different tactic. At the beginning of his speech, he compared the opponent with the "eccentric young man who, walking along the shore, found an oarlock and therefore had a desire to build a ship; so Stsovola from one oarlock built ... this process. " With such comparisons, Lucius Licinius made the audience change their mood "from severity to fun." Then he “completely suppressed Stsevola with an abundance of arguments and examples” ^[90] , which were interspersed with humorous retreats (while the jokes were soft, without barbs). In particular, he said: “Stcevola, because if not a single will is correct, except for those that you make yourself, then we all, citizens, will come running with signs right to you, so that you will make all wills. And then what happens? ... When will you be engaged in public affairs? ”Finally, Lucius Licinius told the audience about how much the spirit of the law is more important than the dead letter, and not only convinced them that he was right, but also made Quintus Mucius speak. As a result, Maniy Kuri received his inheritance ^{[92] [93]} .

There is a story about another lawsuit in which Crassus participated as a defender. This was the work of Gnei Planck, heard in 91 BC. e. The prosecutor, Mark Junius Brutus, in order to discredit his opponent, ordered his two secretaries to read alternately two speeches by Lucius Licinius - against the Senate and in defense of the Senate. Crassus retaliated by summoning three readers with the writing of Father Brutus in civil law. In the first phrases of each of the three books of this essay, patrimonial estates were mentioned that the prosecutor managed to squander. Having supplied these quotes with his comments, Lucius Licinius exposed Brutus before the judges as a dissolute person, a waster of his father's property. He pursued the same goal when, in response to the opponent’s words “There is nothing to sweat here” (Mark Junius wanted to say that Planck’s guilt is obvious and the prosecutor will not have to make efforts) answered with a taunt: “Of course, there’s nothing: you just broke up with the bathhouse ”(not long before Brutus sold the bathhouse too) ^[94] .

Crass joked harder this time because he hated Brutus. In addition, he used tragic pathos. During the trial, a funeral procession took place directly through the Forum with the body of the old matron Junia, a relative of the prosecutor. Seeing her, Lucius Licinius unexpectedly for all gathered "exclaimed indignantly and swiftly:" Are you sitting, Brutus? What should the deceased pass from you to your father? To all those whose images are moving in front of you? To your ancestors? Lucius Brutus , who delivered our people from royal oppression? What to tell them about your life? About your deeds, about your glory, about your valor? ”As a result, Mark Junius had to regret that he touched Crassus ^[95] .

Cicero calls Crassus and Stcevola the best experts in oratory for his time; it is known that the young Quintus Hortensius first appeared in court in their presence, and Crassus and Stcevola immediately discerned great talent in him ^[96] . The student of Lucius Licinius was an outstanding speaker and politician, Publius Sulpicius . And Cicero called Crassus' speech in defense of Cepion his "mentor" ^[69] .

The heroes of the Brutus treatise complain that Crassus too rarely published the texts of his speeches. Moreover, in some cases entire sections in the texts were only outlined, but not developed, so the reader would rather get a speech plan with notes for memory ^[97] . Sometimes Lucius Licinius also published full texts, which received reader recognition and, despite the rapid development of oratory in that era, occupied a place among the universally recognized masterpieces ^[98] .

Cicero puts Lucius Licinius far above all the other masters of eloquence of that era ^[86] and paints his portrait with obvious love ^[99] . Therefore, it was in the mouth of Crassus that Cicero invested a story about what an ideal speaker should be like ^[100] . According to Mark Tullius, Crassus died just when, after passing all the cursus honorum, the path “to the highest influence” opened before him ^[101] .

Lucius Licinius was considered one of the best Roman speakers until the time of Tacitus ^{[102] [98]} . At the same time, Lucius Anney Seneca reports that contemporary archaists did not recognize Crassus, considering him “too sophisticated and modern” ^[103] . After Tacitus, Lucius Licinius is no longer quoted directly, although references to him are found until the very end of antiquity ^[98] .

In historiography, there is an opinion that the best Roman orator before Cicero was still Guy Sempronius Gracchus ^{[104] [105]} . Russian researchers T. Kuznetsova and I. Strelnikova believe that, compared with the Gracchus, Lucius Licinius from a "wrestling orator" turned into a "artisan orator, professional orator without strong political convictions." The political vacillations of Crassus are assessed in this context as “one of the harbinger of collapse” of the Roman Republic ^[64] .

Speaking about Crassus’s political career, E. Bedian calls him a “sober and insightful man” who, in the face of acute conflicts within the Roman nobility, was able to preserve his freedom of action without linking his fate to any of the warring parties ^[106] . Russian researcher A. Egorov put forward a hypothesis about the existence in the late II - early I centuries BC. e. political-intellectual "circle Crassov-Stsevol", to which belonged and Lucius Licinius. This "circle", according to Egorov, played an important role in the life of Rome, focusing on "soil interests" in culture and being a "moderate-centrist group" in politics ^[107] .

Several prominent contemporaries of Lucius Licinius Crassus ( Mark Emilius Scavr , Publius Rutilius Rufus , Quintus Lutius Catulus , Lucius Cornelius Sulla ) left behind their memories, but they were completely lost ^[108] . Since Crassus was evaluated in ancient literature primarily as an orator and only second as a politician, information about him was preserved mainly as part of rhetorical works. The texts of the speeches of Lucius Licinius himself did not reach us; the main sources containing information about Crassus were the works of Mark Tullius Cicero ^[99] . This speaker was fifteen years old at the time of the death of Lucius Licinius, and was present at some of Crassus' recent speeches, including the most recent. Cicero mentions Crassus in a number of his speeches, and in the treatises Brutus and On the Orator, Lucius Licinius became one of the central figures ^[98] .

In addition, information on individual episodes of Crassus’s biography is contained in the writings of Asconius Pedian ^[55] , Pliny the Elder ^[38] , Guy Suetonius Tranquill ^[109] , Valery Maxim ^[44] .

The German antiquologist N. Hepke wrote an article for the Pauli-Wissow encyclopedia in which he analyzed the main circle of sources on Crassus' biography ^[110] . In addition, Lucius Licinius appears in more general works devoted to Lucius Cornelius Sulla ^[111] , the “dark decade” (90 years BC) ^{[112] [113] [114]} . As an outstanding speaker, he came into the view of authors of books on the history of Roman literature ^{[115] [116]} and biographers of Cicero ^[117] .