An apple is a juicy, acid-sweet fruit of an apple tree that is eaten fresh and serves as a raw material in cooking and for preparing drinks. The most common is the apple tree , less commonly grown sapwood . The size of red, green, or yellow spherical fruits is 5–13 cm in diameter. It comes from Central Asia, where the wild-growing ancestor of the domestic apple tree, the Sivers apple tree, still grows [1] . Today, there are many varieties of this type of apple tree, growing in various climatic conditions. The ripening time is distinguished by summer, autumn and winter varieties, later varieties are distinguished by good resistance.
Etymology
The Russian word apple arose as a result of the addition of a prosthetic initial j- to praslav. * ablъko ; the latter is formed using the suffix -k- from the Late Indo-European base * āblu- 'apple' ( lit. obuolỹs , Latvian. ābols , English apple , German Apfel , Gallic avallo , other Irish aball [ 2] [3] ). This basis is the regionalism of the north-western Indo-European languages and goes back, in turn, to the common Indo-European basis (reconstructed as * (a) masl- [4] or as * ŝamlu- [3] ). With the suffix -on- the same basis was given to the apple tree (later apple tree ) [5] .
The Latin words mālum 'apple' and mālus 'apple tree' also go back to great-e. * (a) masl - / * ŝamlu- [4] .
Plant Botanical Description
Trees with a branchy spherical or ovoid crown 2-10 m high and above. The root system is pivotal, with lateral branches [1] .
Branches are shortened (flowering), on which flower buds are laid, and elongated (growth).
Petiolate leaves, whole, alternate, glabrous or pubescent below, with falling or remaining stipules . The form is usually ovoid, leaf margin is ridge or serrate [1] .
Flowers are collected in semi- flowered semi - umbilical or corymbose inflorescences . The color of the flowers can vary from completely white to pale pink and bright raspberry [6] . The flowers of the apple tree are protogynic : the gynoecium ripens before the androecium . Pollinated by insects [7] .
The fruit is an apple arising from the inferior ovary . Gynoecium is enclosed in the lower ovary [6] . As the fetus is formed, the carpels become cartilaginous, parchment, leathery. On the section of the fetus, the border between the hypanthia tissues and the ovary tissues is clearly visible, outlined by the circle of more densely located cells and vascular bundles [7] .
Flower formula : [8] .
The apple tree at home begins to bear fruit (depending on the variety and culture conditions), usually at the 4-12th year, the productive period is 40-50 years. Fruiting at the ends of shortened branches ( ringworms , spears , fruit twigs ). It blooms in April and May. Flowering lasts 8-12 days. Pollination is cross. With abundant flowering, about 30% of the ovaries set and develop to mature fruits, the rest fall off [9] .
Breeding History
The ancestors of modern man have always eaten wild apples. Apples are grown for almost 5 thousand years [1] . The homeland of a domesticated apple tree is the territory of modern southern Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan (the foothills of the Alatau ), where the Sivers apple tree is still found in the wild, from which the home apple tree originated [10] [11] . Presumably, from there during the time of Alexander the Great or during other migrations, she came to Europe. According to another version, this fruit tree originally grew in the area between the Caspian and Black Seas , and from there it was brought to other parts of the world [12] . Carbonized remains of an apple tree were discovered during excavations of the prehistoric lake sites of Switzerland ; apparently, the inhabitants of Europe knew the apple tree well in the Neolithic times , but its domestication in this part of the world occurred much later [3] .
The cradle of apple farming in Europe was Ancient Greece . The writers of ancient Rome - Caton , Varron , Columella , Pliny the Elder - described 36 varieties of apple trees grown in their time [13] . In European culture, the apple tree quickly took an important place. The pan-European motive can be considered the motive of “golden apples”, supposedly granting immortality and eternal youth and therefore often stolen [3] . Even the word "paradise" in Celtic sounds like Avalon ("country of apples") [13] .
In Russian lands, a cultivated apple tree first appeared in the 11th century in the monastery gardens of Kievan Rus ; Thus, under Yaroslav the Wise (in 1051), an apple orchard, later known as the garden of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra , was founded [14] . In the XVI century, the apple tree appeared in the northern regions of Russia . For the cultivation of cultivars of the apple tree, four of its species were used: low apple tree , forest apple tree , berry apple tree , and larch apple tree, or Chinese apple tree .
Nutritional Value
| Unpeeled raw apples Nutrition value per 100 g of product | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy value 52 kcal 217 kJ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A medium apple with a moderate fiber content weighs about 242 g and contains about 126 calories [15] .
In English, there is a proverb “whoever eats an apple a day does not happen with a doctor” ( An apple a day keeps the doctor away ). According to some studies, eating apples can reduce the risk of bowel, prostate, and lung cancer. Compared to other fruits and vegetables, apples do not contain much vitamin C, but are rich in other antioxidants.
Apple fiber, although smaller than most other fruits, stimulates intestinal motility, which can reduce the risk of cancer. Fiber can also be useful in preventing heart disease, losing weight, and lowering cholesterol.
They contain malic, tartaric, citric and other organic acids , sugars ( glucose , sucrose and others), vitamins C, A, B1 , carotene , tannins and pectins , trace elements ( iron , copper ), macrocells ( potassium , calcium , magnesium and others ), essential oil , and other substances.
Dried apples are a good source of easily digestible sugars (contain from 8 to 15%), trace elements (up to 0.5% of various mineral salts), and about one daily norm of iodine is contained in the seeds of one middle fruit
For example, Antonov apples in 100 grams with a calorie content of 48 kcal contain: 0.3 g of protein, 11.5 g of carbohydrates, 0.02 mg of vitamin B1 , 4.9 mg of vitamin C , 16 mg of calcium and 86 mg of potassium .
Apple seeds contain the toxic amygdalin glycoside .
Cooking Apples
Cooking Methods
- Fresh - in the salad.
- Dried - dried fruit obtained by drying in the sun or in the oven.
- Soaked - in these blanks there are three types of urination: simple, acidic and sugar.
- Fermented. In pickles, the salt concentration in brines is not less than 6–8%, and in urination, 1.5–2% [16] .
- Canned.
- Jam from apples.
- Porridge or mashed apples crushed in a blender.
- Baked - sweet (with honey , nuts , cranberries and so on) and as a side dish for meat and poultry. In Russia, a goose with apples is a traditional Christmas dish .
- Apples can be used as raw materials for the preparation of jams , jams , mousses . Small-fruited apples can be used as a whole in jam [17] . Cinnamon is usually added to apple dishes and preserves to enhance flavor.
- Fresh apples and in the form of jam are used as a filling for pies (for example, charlotte ). In Hungarian , German and Czech cuisines, strudel roll ( German Strudel ) made of puff pastry and toppings from fresh apples or cherries is popular.
- Pectin contained in apples is used as a gelling agent in the manufacture of marmalade and marshmallows .
Apple Drinks
- Apple juice
- Fresh and dried apples are used to make compotes and jelly .
- Apple wine is made from apple juice, and cider is also prepared by fermentation and champagne . The brandy obtained by distilling cider is called calvados .
- Waste from processing apples, other fruits and berries was also used in the preparation of low-quality fruit and berry wines .
- Apple cider vinegar
- Apple kvass .
- Applesauce.
Production and trade
To grow 1 kg of apples, up to 700 l ( virtual units ) of water are needed [18] .
Worldwide apple production totaled 55 million tons in 2005, at a cost of $ 10 billion. China produced two-fifths of this volume. The USA is the second largest producer of apples, accounting for 7.5% of world production. 60% of apples grown in the United States grew in Washington state [19] . Import of apples from New Zealand and other countries with a more moderate climate competes with American production and increases from year to year [20] .
The largest exporters of apples, according to 2006 data: China , Chile , Italy , France and the USA , the largest importers, according to 2006 data are Russia , Germany , Great Britain , and the Netherlands [21] .
| The largest producers of apples ( tons ) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A country | June 2008 | 2013 year [22] | ||
| China | 27,507,000 | 39,680,000 | ||
| European Union | no data | 11 973 500 | ||
| USA | 4,237,730 | 4 693 276 | ||
| Iran | 2 660 000 | no data | ||
| Turkey | 2,266,437 | 2 900 000 | ||
| India | 2 001 400 | 2,200,000 | ||
| Russia | 2,211,000 | 1,416,000 | ||
| Brazil | no data | 1,335,000 | ||
| Italy | 2,072,500 | no data | ||
| France | 1 800 000 | no data | ||
| Chile | 1,390,000 | 1 310 000 | ||
| Ukraine | no data | 1,120,000 | ||
| South Africa | no data | 900,000 | ||
| Mexico | 2,600,000 | 860,000 | ||
| Japan | no data | 800,000 | ||
| Argentina | 1,300,000 | 630,000 | ||
| New Zealand | no data | 487,500 | ||
| Canada | no data | 382,000 | ||
| Australia | no data | 290,000 | ||
| Azerbaijan | no data | 235,000 | ||
| Serbia | no data | 180,000 | ||
| Kazakhstan | no data | 130,000 | ||
| Total in the world | 64 255 520 | |||
| No symbol = according to official data, F = according to FAO estimates, A = aggregate (may include official data, semi-official data or estimated); Source: FAO | ||||
Storage
Several modes of storage of fruits of apples and pears are used: at low temperatures in ordinary atmospheric conditions, in a refrigerator with a controlled gas environment (CGS) and in a refrigerator with a modified gas medium (MGS) [23] .
If storing varieties of apples or pears, especially those grown in the south, require elevated temperatures (+ 3 ... + 4 ° C), then to reduce the intensity of respiration of the fruits and the development of microflora, they create a gas environment with a minimum amount of oxygen and maximum carbon dioxide, which provides lengthening the duration of storage, that is, the onset of physiological maturity lengthens. Since this storage mode requires significant material and energy costs, it is used only for fruits of the highest and first commercial varieties [23] .
During storage and transportation, apples can be coated with diphenyl (banned in the EU and the USA as a carcinogen) .
Apple tree varieties
There are more than 7.5 thousand varieties of apples [24] . Apples of different varieties differ in size and yield, even if the varieties are grafted to a single stock [25] . Different varieties of apples are intended for cultivation in various types of temperate and subtropical climates.
Varieties with soft but crunchy fruits have gained commercial distribution. Other desirable qualities of modern commercially bred varieties are beautiful colors and shapes, fruit resistance to bored, transportation, long-term storage, good taste. Plants must have high yields and disease resistance [25] . Most cultivated varieties are for fresh apples, but there are varieties grown for culinary use and for making cider . Cider apples usually have a tart astringent taste and are unsuitable for fresh use, but the drink made from them has a more refined taste than prepared from dessert apples [26] .
Fuji apples
Golden apple
Antonovka
Apple Appliances
Apple Knife
Fruit strippers for apples. the USSR
Apple knives
Water cut apple
Apple press
There are special knives for cutting apples. They cut the core, sometimes also the rest of the apple is divided into six or eight equal slices. The cutter in the figure is a clip-handle made of metal or plastic with blades mounted in it. The blades are usually made of stainless steel. The holder protects the hand from being cut by the blades and transfers the force of the hand to the cutting blades.
Apple in Culture
Interesting Facts
- It is widely believed that the cause of darkening of an apple slice in the air is the oxidation of iron compounds in the apple. In fact, the darkening is caused by the formation of flobafenes from polyphenols with the participation of tyrosinase ( polyphenol oxidase ) [27] . Polyphenols undergo similar changes in potatoes . A GM variety of Arctic apples, not darkening at the cut, was created.
See also
- List of countries producing apples
- Calvados
- Cider
- Strudel
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Apple tree / E. N. Sedov // Big Russian Encyclopedia : [in 35 vol.] / Ch. ed. Yu.S. Osipov . - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2004—2017.
- ↑ Fasmer, M.R. Yabloko // Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language. - M .: Progress , 1964-1973. Archived February 7, 2012. - Indo-European etymology of the word "apple".
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Gamkrelidze, T.V. , Ivanov, Vyach. Sun Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans: Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of the proto-language and protoculture. - Tbilisi: Publishing House of Tbilisi University, 1984. - S. 637-642.
- ↑ 1 2 Starostin, S. A. Indo-European-North Caucasian isoglosses // Ancient East: ethnocultural relations. - M .: Nauka , 1988 .-- S. 112-163. - ISBN 5-02-016792-4 .
- ↑ Tsyganenko, G.P. Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language. - 2nd ed. - Kiev: Radyanska school , 1989. - S. 505. - ISBN 5-330-00735-6 .
- ↑ 1 2 Sergievskaya, E.V. Systematics of Higher Plants: A Practical Course. - 2nd ed. - SPb. : Doe, 2002 .-- S. 231-233. - ISBN 5-8114-0452-2 .
- ↑ 1 2 Plant Life, vol. 5, part 2, 1981 , p. 184.
- ↑ Fedorov, Al. A., Artyushenko, Z. T. Atlas on the descriptive morphology of higher plants. - L .: Nauka , 1975 .-- S. 12.
- ↑ Yakovlev G.P., Chelombitko V.A. Botany: Textbook for universities / Ed. R.V.Kamelina. - SPb. : Spetslit, publishing house SPCPA, 2003. - S. 435. - 647 p. - 5,000 copies. - ISBN 5-299-00237-8 .
- ↑ Velasco R. et al. The genome of the domesticated apple ( Malus × domestica Borkh.) // Nature Genetics. - 2010 .-- Vol. 42, No. 10 . - P. 833.
- ↑ Sivers Apple - the ancestor of all the apple trees of the Earth - Picture of the World (Inaccessible link) . Date of treatment March 19, 2013. Archived April 24, 2013.
- ↑ Cognition of the fetus . // The New Times . - 8/24/2009.
- ↑ 1 2 Ivchenko, 1965 , p. 58.
- ↑ Ivchenko, 1965 , p. 59.
- ↑ Nutrition Facts, Apples, raw, with skin [Includes USDA commodity food A343 Nutrition Facts & Calories] . Nutritiondata.com. Date of treatment January 3, 2013. Archived December 28, 2012.
- ↑ http://www.syrnikov.ru/Mycookery/mochenya.html Archived March 7, 2009 on the Wayback Machine Soaking, pickling and pickling - three sources, three components of a Russian snack
- ↑ Paradise apple jam
- ↑ http://www.unesco-ihe.org/content/download/2608/26887/file/Report16_Volume1.pdf (link not available)
- ↑ Desmond, Andrew. The World Apple Market. - Haworth Press, 1994 .-- P. 144–149. - ISBN 1560220414 .
- ↑ Kristin Churchill. Chinese apple-juice concentrate exports to United States continue to rise (link not available) . Great American Publishing. Date of treatment January 22, 2008. Archived November 2, 2004.
- ↑ FAO
- ↑ Table of data on the volume of production of fresh apples in countries for 2013: .
- ↑ 1 2 Хранение яблок и груш
- ↑ Elzebroek, ATG Guide to Cultivated Plants . — Wallingford : CAB International, 2008. — P. 27. — ISBN 978-1-84593-356-2 .
- ↑ 1 2 Apple – Malus domestica . Natural England. Дата обращения 22 января 2008. Архивировано 12 мая 2008 года.
- ↑ Sue Tarjan. Autumn Apple Musings (недоступная ссылка) 1–2. News & Notes of the UCSC Farm & Garden, Center for Agroecology & Sustainable Food Systems (Fall 2006). Дата обращения 24 января 2008. Архивировано 11 августа 2007 года.
- ↑ Ратушный и др., 2003 , с. 196.
Literature
- А. С. Ратушный , В. И. Хлебников , Б. А. Баранов и др. Физико-химические процессы, протекающие в пищевых продуктах при их кулинарной обработке // Технология продукции общественного питания. В 2-х т. / Под ред. д-ра техн. наук, проф. А. С. Ратушного . — М. : Мир, 2003. — Т. 1. — 351 с. — ISBN 5-03-003580-X , УДК 641.5(075.8), ББК 36.99:36.81я73.
- Жизнь растений. Энциклопедия в 6 т. / Гл. ed. А. Л. Тахтаджян . — М. : Просвещение , 1981. — Т. 5, ч. 2: Цветковые растения. - 511 p.