Racial classifications group the human population according to racial types of individuals or outward traits characteristic of populations . They differ in the construction principles and data used, the groups included and the underlying features.
Up to the present, in the anthropological literature a significant place was taken by attempts to build an increasingly complete and objective classification of the human races. Mostly they were based on morphology . The problem of the number of major races is still being actively debated [1] .
Classification Options
In almost all schemes of racial classifications, at least three general groups (three great races) are necessarily distinguished: Mongoloids , Negroids, and Europoids , although the names of these groups may vary.
Thus, the Mongoloids are sometimes called the Asian or Asian-American race, the Negroid - equatorial or Austra-Negroid, the Caucasoid - Caucasoid or Eurasian. Sometimes, the Australoids , Amerikanoids ( Indians ), Khoisanoids ( Bushmen and Hottentots ) are also distinguished as large races, less often - Oceanoids ( Polynesians ), the Kuril race ( Ainu ) and Lapponoid ( Lopari , or Sami ).
Ancient Classifications
Judging by various historical sources, people have long paid attention to the existence of territorial differences in appearance. The Bible distinguishes three races, originating from the sons of Noah - Shem (yellowish), Hama (blacks), Japheth (white-skinned). Similar views were among the Egyptians , who in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. er used four colors when depicting people of different origin: red for Egyptians, yellow for the peoples of the east, white for the peoples of the north, black for the southern peoples. For many peoples, the main distinguishing morphological feature is pigmentation, and first of all , skin color [2] .
The first scientific racial classifications (XVII — XVIII centuries)
The author of the first racial classification should be Francois Bernier (1684), who distinguished four human races [3] [4] :
- “First Race”: Europeans, North Africans, Front Asians, Indians, American Indians;
- "Second race": African negros ;
- "Third race": East Asians;
- "The fourth race": Lapps .
The Swedish natural scientist Karl Linne in 1746 creates the first racial classification based on psychosomatic and physiological characteristics [5] [6] :
- Americanus is an American. Redhead, choleric , keeps straight, stubborn, self-satisfied, obeys tradition.
- Europaeus - European. Blond , sanguine , muscular, agile, witty, inventive, obeys the law.
- Asiaticus is Asian. Yellow-faced, melancholic , flexible, cruel, stingy, loves luxury, dresses in wide clothes, obeys the opinion of society.
- Africanus or Afer - African. Black, phlegmatic , sluggish physique, cunning, indifferent, inactive, buttered with fats, subject to arbitrariness.
French naturalist J.-L. de Buffon , objecting to C. Linnaeus, singled out (1749) six races [3] [7] :
- European race;
- Tatar or Mongolian race;
- Ethiopian race;
- American race;
- Lapland or polar race;
- South Asian race.
The German philosopher I. Kant identified four races [8] :
- white;
- black
- Hun (Munghal or Kalmyk, to which he ranked the Americans);
- Indian or Indiana.
The German scientist Johann-Friedrich Blumenbach in 1776 identified five human races, already attracting craniological characteristics [9] :
- Caucasian race (Europeans, excluding Lapps );
- Mongolian race (Asians);
- African race;
- American race;
- Malay race ( Indonesians , Australians and Polynesians ) [10] .
19th century racial classifications
In the XIX century. racial classifications were complicated and supplemented. Within the limits of large races , small ones began to stand out, but signs of such a selection in systems of the XIX century often served features of culture and language [9] .
J. Cuvier Classification
The famous French naturalist and naturalist Georges Cuvier ( 1800 ) divided people into three races according to their skin color and some other characteristics:
- Caucasian race;
- Mongolian race;
- Ethiopian race [11] .
Classification J. Virey
French scientist Julien-Joseph Viray in the early 19th century divided humanity into two large groups, which are then divided into tribes [11] :
- White race
- white tribe
- tawny tribe
- copper red tribe
- black race
- dark brown tribe ( Indians and Malays )
- black tribe (negros and kafra)
- dark-black tribe ( Hottentots and Papuans )
L. Demoulen Classification
The French physiologist Louis-Antoine Desmoulins in 1825 proposed the classification of the human race into eleven species [11] :
- Celto-Scytho-Arabs;
- the Mongols;
- Ethiopians;
- East Africans;
- South Africans;
- Malays or Oceanians;
- Laplanders;
- Oceanic negros;
- Aussies;
- Colombians;
- the Americans.
The following year, he brought the number of species to sixteen [12] .
Classification J. de Saint-Vincent
The French scientist Jean-Baptiste Bori de Saint-Vincent in his 1827 essay singled out 15 species of the human race [11] :
- Japheth, divided into 4 tribes;
- Arab, divided into 2 tribes;
- Indian;
- Scythian;
- Chinese;
- Hyperborean;
- Neptunian (Malay), divided into 3 tribes;
- Australian;
- Colombian;
- American;
- Patagonian;
- Ethiopian;
- Kaffra;
- Melanian;
- Hottentotskaya.
A. Dumeril Classification
The French zoologist Andre-Marie Dumeril in his book Elemens des sciences naturelles ( 1830 ) divides humanity into five races [11] :
- Caucasian, or Arab-European;
- hyperborean;
- Mongolian;
- Negro
- American
I. Kaup's classification
The German zoologist Johann Kaup in the work of Das Thierreich in seinen Hauptformen ( 1835 ) divided mankind into 15 races. Of these, 5 are considered fundamental, and the rest derivatives [11] :
- Caucasian (Homo Iapeticus) - Derivatives of the Indian (Homo Indicus), Arab (Homo Arabicus);
- Mongolian (Homo Scythicus) - Chinese derivatives (Homo Sinicus), Laplander (Homo Hiperboreus);
- Malay (Homo Neptunians) - New-Holland derivative (Homo Australaticus), Malay (Homo Melaninus);
- North American (Homo Colombicus) - American derivatives (Homo Americanus), Patagonian (Homo Patagonicus);
- Negro (Homo Aethiopicus) - derivatives Kaffir (Homo Caffer), Hottentot (Homo Hottentotus).
J. Pritchard Classification
The English psychiatrist and ethnographer J. Pritchard in his 1843 essay “The Natural History of Man ” ( Natural History of Man ) identified seven main races [13] :
- Indo-Atlantic race;
- Turan race ;
- American race (except for the Eskimos);
- Hottentots;
- Negros;
- Negritos (Papuans);
- Alfurus - the tribes of Australia and the Australian Islands.
A. Retzius Classification
The Swedish anatomist A. Retzius introduced the term “ cranial index ” into anthropology, and its four races (1844) differed in the combination of the degree of protrusion of the face and the head index [14] . These were dolichocephalous and brachycephalic , which, in turn, were divided into prognathic and orthognathic [15] .
S. Morton Classification
American scientist Samuel J. Morton believed that there are five races: Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, American and Negro [16] . He divided each race into families, having received a total of 22 families [17] .
Classification I. Saint-Hilaire
In 1861, French biologist I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire presented a four-racial scheme: to three Cuvier races, he added the Hottentot, and in their composition he singled out 11 minor races (he himself called the great races “types”, and the small races - “races” [18] ):
- Caucasian race;
- Caucasian race;
- Alleghenan (Red Indian ) race;
- Mongolian race;
- Hyperborean ( Lapps ) race;
- Malay race;
- American (with the exception of the Red Indians) race;
- Mongolian race;
- Paraborean ( Eskimo ) race;
- Australian race;
- Ethiopian race;
- kafir race;
- Ethiopian race;
- Negro race;
- Melanesian race;
- Hottentot race [19] .
Classification T. Huxley
The English zoologist and anatomist T. Huxley (1870) comes to the five-member scheme, dividing the European group into two: light and dark pigmented (xanthohroi and melanochroi); along with melanoderm (black) and leukoderm (yellow), an independent position in the system is assigned to the Australian type [20] :
- Negroids:
- Bushman race;
- Negro race;
- Papuan race;
- Australoids:
- Australian race;
- Dravidian race;
- Ethiopian (Hamitic) race;
- Mongoloids:
- Mongolian race;
- Polynesian race;
- American race;
- Eskimo race;
- Malay race;
- Xanthochroids:
- xanthochroids of northern Europe;
- melanochroids:
- melanochroids of southern Europe;
- melanochroids of Asia [21] .
B. Flower Classification
The English anatomist V. Flower in 1885 proposed his classification [22] :
- Negroid (black) race
- Africans (negros)
- Hottentots and Bushmen
- Melanesians as well as Australians
- Negritos
- Mongolian (yellow) race
- Eskimos
- Mongols of Central and North Asia
- polynesians
- American Indians
- Caucasian (white) race
- Europeans
- Egyptians (ancient and modern)
- indian aborigines
- Ainu
- Wedde ( Ceylon )
Classification P. Topinar
The French anthropologist P. Topinar ( 1885 ) distinguished three large races on pigmentation , but determined, in addition to pigmentation, the width of the nose:
- fair-skinned, narrow-nosed race ( Caucasoid );
- yellow-skinned, medium-broad-bearing ( Mongoloid ) race;
- the black, broad-bearing race ( Negroid ) [20] .
He also identified 19 minor races [21] :
- white leptorine races
- Anglo-Scandinavians
- Western Finns
- Mediterranean
- Semitic Egyptians
- Lappon-Ligurians
- Celto-Slavs
- yellow mezorine races
- Eskimos
- teuelchi
- polynesians
- Red Indians
- yellow peoples of Asia (including the Finns of the second type)
- Guarani (South Americans, except for the Teuelches)
- Peruvians
- black platyrin races
- Aussies
- bushmen
- Melanesians
- Negros
- Tasmanians
- Negritos
J. de Catherfage Classification
French anthropologist and zoologist J. de Catrfage ( 1893 ) classified humanity as follows [21] :
- Negro trunk
- Indo-Melanesian Branch
- Australian branch
- african branch
- yellow barrel
- Siberian branch
- tibetan branch
- Indo-Chinese branch
- american (eskimo-brazilian) branch
- white barrel
- Allophilic branch (Ainu, Caucasians, Indonesians, etc.)
- Finnish branch
- Semitic branch
- Aryan branch
- mixed races
- Oceanic (Japanese, Polynesians, Malays)
- American (Indians of North, Central and South America).
Classification of E. Haeckel and F. Muller
E. Haeckel and F. Muller based the classification of races on the shape of hair. They identified four groups ( 1900 ):
- bun hair (lofocomy)
- Papuans
- Hottentots
- woolly-haired
- kafirs
- Negros
- straight hair (euploma)
- Aussies
- Malays
- the Mongols
- arctic peoples
- wavy hair (euploma)
- Dravidians
- Ethiopians
- Mediterranean (Aryan) [21]
Twentieth Century Racial Classifications
Typological classifications
Classification of K. Straz
Dutch traveler and anthropologist K. Shtrats at the beginning of XX century. He based the classification of races on a new principle - the degree of morphological differentiation of distinctive features. The ancient types of Stratz called "protomorphic", modern - "archimorphic", transitional - "metamorphic":
- Protomorphic races - Bushmen , Negrilli , Negritos , Polynesians , one of the variants of the American races, Australians, Ainu , Veddas and Dravidians ;
- metamorphic races: “yellow-white” in Eastern Europe and Western Siberia, and “black and white”, common in Indochina and places in India ;
- archimorphic races:
- Mongols (yellow race);
- Middle-earth (white race);
- blacks (black race) [20] [23] .
I. Ye. Deniker's Classification
The system of classification I. Ye. Deniker is the first serious system based only on biological characters. The groups identified by the author, almost unchanged, albeit with different names, moved to later racial schemes. I. Deniker was the first to use the idea of two levels of differentiation - the selection of the main and then secondary races first [24] .
Deniker singled out six racial trunks:
- Group A (woolly hair, broad nose): Bushman, Negro, Negro and Melanesian races;
- Group B (curly or wavy hair): Ethiopian, Australian, Dravidian, and Assyroid races;
- Group C (wavy, dark or black hair and dark eyes): Indo-Afghan, Arab or Semitic, Berber, Southern European, Ibero-insular, Western European and Adriatic races;
- Group D (wavy or straight hair, blond eyes with bright eyes): the North European ( Nordic ) and East European races;
- Group E (straight or wavy, black hair, dark eyes): Ainos, Polynesian, Indonesian, and South American races;
- Group F (straight hair): North American, Middle American, Patagonian, Eskimo, Lappish, Ugric , Turkish-Tatar (Turanian) and Mongolian races [1] [24] .
Among the European races, besides the aforementioned, Deniker identified certain subraces:
- northwest;
- subnordic ;
- Vistula or Eastern [25] .
Classification of J. Montadon
The French anthropologist Georges Montadon in his book La race, les races ( 1933 ) singled out the following great races:
- Caucasoid;
- Mongoloid;
- Negroid
- Veddo-Australoid;
- pygmoid.
E. Eickstedt Classification
The German anthropologist E. Eikstedt ( 1934 ) introduced a uniform nomenclature for the designation of races, composed of the name of the ethnic group characteristic of the race and the end of the “ida”. This conditional ending without change is used to designate both large races and smaller units - europids, baltids, dinarids. Eykstedt recognized three directions of racial differentiation, but he took into account the differences in the combinations of characters, their degree of expression, and established four divisions in each direction:
- the main "circle of races", comprising from four to nine species within the main range;
- "Lateral" race, separated, apparently, before the formation of the main circle of forms;
- "Transitional", or intermediate, race, connecting the differences of different main groups;
- "Peculiar" or "deviating" form.
The author did not give an exact general definition of the selected taxons. Eickstedt’s scheme includes three trunks, each with four sufficiently separate branches [20] :
Main directions | Leucoderma | Xanthoderma | Melanoderma |
Race Circles | Europids | Mongolians | Negrides |
"Side" race | Polynesides | Indianides | Melanesides |
Transitional forms | Ainuida | Coinsanides | Australids |
Peculiar forms | Weddidy | Eskimida | Pygmids |
The euro circle of races includes:
- depigmented northern races - Nordis and Eastern Europe
- central - mountaineering , dinarida, armenides , tunini
- South Eurasian - mediterranids , orientalides, indians
The negrid circle of races includes:
- contact with europid - Ethiopids
- Savannah - Sudanids, Nilotides, Bantuids
- tropical mountain - paleonegrid
- Melanesides - indimelanides, neomelanesides (Papuans), paleomelanesides
The Mongolian circle of races includes:
- contact with europids - sibirida
- Northern - Tungida , Sinida
- southern - paleomongolis
The indianide side includes:
- northern small - pacifid, centralid
- northern tall - sylvids, margids
- Southern small - candida, Patagonida
- southern tall - brazilids, lagids [26] [27]
Classification A. I. Yarkho
The Soviet scientist A.I. Yarkho ( 1935 , 1936 ) described 35 human races:
- Paleo-Siberian
- Ural-Altai
- laponoid
- Baltic
- South Siberian
- Central Asian
- Eskimo
- Manchu-Korean
- Atlantic
- south american
- paleo american
- Patagonian
- pacific
- middle american
- Polynesian
- Pamir
- North Caucasus
- Ethiopian
- Negro
- african-pygmeoid
- Bushmen
- South Asian
- Papuan
- Asian Pygmy
- Dravidian
- Ainu
- Melanesian
- Veddo-Indonesian
- Australian
- Armenoid
- mediterranean
- dinar
- alpine
- North [28]
E. Huton's classification
The American scientist E. Huton in Up from the Ape (1946) divided humanity into the following races [29] :
- White or Caucasian Primary Race
- Mediterranean type
- Upper Paleolithic, mainly in the British Isles
- Iranian plateau type
- Classic Mediterranean, in orlinonos and straightbeam variants
- Ain type
- Celtic type (light-eyed, dark or red-haired, long-headed, mostly in the British Isles)
- Nordic type
- Alpine type
- East Baltic type (blond brachycephalus)
- Armenoid type (stabilized mixture of Iranian plateau, classical Mediterranean and Alpine types)
- Dinar type (stabilized mixture of Upper Paleolithic, Alpine, Armenoid and Nordic types)
- Nordic-Alpine type
- Nordic-Mediterranean type
- Mediterranean type
Composite types, mostly white:
- Australian (archaic version of the white race + Tasmanian + Melanesian)
- Murray, with a predominance of white element
- Carpentaria, with a predominance of Melanesian
- Tasmanoid
- Indo-Dravidian (classical Mediterranean + Australoid + Negro + Various minor impurities)
- Classical Indo-Dravidian, to the classic Mediterranean type: northern India
- A mixture of armenoid with the type of the Iranian plateau: western and northeastern India
- Indo-Nordic: Northwest Himalayas
- Australoid or Vedoidoid: Central and Southeast India
- Non-gritoid: Locally in South India
- Polynesian (mostly white + Mongoloid + Melanesian)
- Australian (archaic version of the white race + Tasmanian + Melanesian)
- Negroid Primary Race
- African or forest negros
- Nilotic Negroes, possibly with an admixture of "Hamite" Mediterranean type
- Negritos
- Infantile type: in all Negritos populations
- Maturized type: among all Negritos, with the exception of Andamans and Filipinos
Composite types, mostly Negroid:
- Tasmanian: Negro + Australian
- Melanesian-Papuan: Negritian + Australoid + Orlinosian classical Mediterranean + impurities
- Papuan
- Melanesian
- Bushman Hottentotsky: Negritsky + Boskopsky
- Bushman
- Hottentot: Bushman + Negro + Hamitic Mediterranean
- Mongoloid Primary Race
- Classic Mongoloid type
- Arctic Mongoloid or eskimoid type (including Eastern Paleo-Asiatic tribes)
Composite types, mainly Mongoloid:
- Indonesian-Mongoloid or Indonesian-Malayan type (Mongoloid + Mediterranean + Ainu + Negrit)
- Malay Mongoloid (Indonesia and India, including most Japanese)
- Indonesian (pre-Mongoloid groups of South China, India, inland islands)
- Native American Indians (Mongoloid + Iranian Mediterranean + Australoid + Minor Negritoid Element)
- Brachycephalus, eagle-headed and snub-nosed subtypes
- Dolikhokefaly, eagle-headed and snub-nosed subtypes
- Indonesian-Mongoloid or Indonesian-Malayan type (Mongoloid + Mediterranean + Ainu + Negrit)
GF Debets Classification
The scheme of racial relationships is very peculiar, represented by the large domestic anthropologist G. F. Debets ( 1958 ). It clearly takes into account the mutual relations of individual anthropological types. Of all the others, it is closest to the family tree of man. However, because of this, the scheme is extremely complex and practically unimaginable in text or tabular form. GF Debets singled out three large races (Negro-Australoid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid ), in each major race - several branches, in each branch - minor races, and in the small races - types [30] .
J. Baker's Classification
The English biologist John Baker in his book Race ( Race , 1974 ) gives the following classification of racial types [31] :
- Australlazid
- australid
- melaneside
- tasmanide
- Europid
- ainuid
- nordid
- mediterranid
- north indide
- orientalide
- Armenid
- dinaride
- mountaineering
- eastern europid
- turunide
- Ethiopid
- Negrid
- paleonegride
- sudanid
- nilotide
- kafrid
- Koisanid
- koid
- sanid
- Mongolid
- tungid
- Sinid
- paleomongolide
- Indianid
- centralis
- Candid
- brazilid
Population classifications
R. Biasutti's classification
The Italian anthropologist R. Biasutti in his monumental work “Races and Peoples of the Earth” ( Italian. Le razze ei popoli della terra , first edition - 1939 , second - 1953 - 1960 ) highlighted the following races: [32]
- Equatorial supraracial trunk
- AUSTRALOIDS
- Australids
- Australian race
- Tasmanian race
- Tasmanoid race
- Neocledonian race
- Papuassidas
- Papua Melanesian Race
- Papua Montana race
- Tapiro
- Weddidy
- Vedda race
- Malian race
- Australids
- NEGROIDES
- Steatopigids
- Bushman race
- Hottentot race
- Coastal race
- Pygmids
- Bambuti
- Babinga
- Negrides
- Sudanese race
- Nilot race
- Kaffra race
- Savage race
- Batua
- Aeta-Semang race
- Andaman race
- Steatopigids
- AUSTRALOIDS
- Boreal supraram trunk
- MONGOLOIDS
- Premongolides
- Paleo-siberian race
- Kamchatka race
- Tibetan race
- Punan race
- Paleo-siberian race
- Mongolians
- Tungus race
- Central Asian race
- Aral race
- Chinese race
- South Mongolian race
- Burmese race
- Palaun race
- Tungus race
- Eskimida
- Eskimo race
- Alaskan race
- Eskimo race
- Premongolides
- EUROPEIDOES
- Preevropida
- Ain race
- Ural race
- Europids
- Mediterranean race
- Seaside race
- Berber race
- Paleosardinian race
- Nordic race
- Irish race
- Dahl race
- Finnish race
- Iranian race
- Assyroid race
- Libyan race
- Indian race
- Indian Peninsular Race
- Alpine race
- Georgian race
- Baltic race
- Doslavian race
- Carpathian race
- Adriatic race
- Padan race
- Norik race
- Pamir race
- Armenoid race
- Mediterranean race
- Lappids
- Lopar race
- Preevropida
- Subequatorial races
- Paleoindoids
- Tamil race
- Malabar race
- Canary race
- Ethiopids
- Ethiopian race
- Oromon race
- Masai race
- Batusi
- Sahara race
- Madagascar race
- Ethiopian race
- Paleoindoids
- Pacific and American races
- Polynesides
- Polynesian race
- Micronesian race
- Maori
- Polynesian race
- Americans
- Alleghenian
- Dakota race
- Aleutian race
- Sonora race
- California
- Colombian race
- Pueblo andean race
- Amazons race
- Lagoan race
- Siriono
- Pampas race
- Patagonian race
- Magellan race
- Polynesides
- MONGOLOIDS
N. N. Cheboksarov classification
NN Cheboksarov ( 1951 ) identified three great races: the equatorial, or Negro-Australoid, Eurasian, or Caucasoid , Asian-American, and 22 minor races, or the second-order race [33] :
- Caucasian (Eurasian) big race
- Indo-Mediterranean minor race
- atlanto-baltic small race
- Central European minor race
- white-Baltic small race
- Balkan-Caucasian minor race
- Mongoloid (Asian-American) big race
- North Asian minor race
- arctic (Eskimo) minor race
- Far Eastern minor race
- South Asian minor race
- American race
- Ural minor race
- South Siberian (Turanian) small race
- Polynesian minor race
- Kuril (Ainu) minor race
- Negroid-Australoid (Equatorial) Great Race
- Australian race
- veddoid race
- Melanesian Little Race
- Negro minor race
- Negril (Central African) minor race
- Bushman (South African) small race
- Ethiopian (East African) small race
- South Indian (Dravidian) minor race
Classification of Ya. Ya. Roginsky and M. G. Levin
The racial scheme, published in the anthropology textbook by Ya. Ya. Roginsky and M. G. Levin ( 1963 ), identifies three trunks [34] :
- Equatorial, or Australian-Negroid,
- Eurasian, or Caucasoid,
- Asian-American, or Mongoloid.
Each trunk has five races and two transitional races occupying a space between the main races:
- Equatorial or Australian Negroid big race
- Australian race
- Veddoid (Ceylon-Zond) minor race
- Melanesian Little Race
- Negro race
- Negril (Central African) Little Race
- Bushman (South African) small race
- Ethiopian (East African) intermediate race
- South Indian (Dravidian) Intermediate Race
- Eurasian or Caucasoid big race
- Indo-Mediterranean minor race
- Atlanto-Baltic small race
- White Sea-Baltic small race
- Central European minor race
- Balkan-Caucasian minor race
- Ural intermediate race
- Asian American or Mongoloid big race
- North Asian minor race
- Arctic (Eskimo) small race
- Far Eastern race
- South Asian minor race
- American race
- Polynesian intermediate race
- Kuril (Ainu) intermediate race
Classification C. Garna
The American anthropologist S. Garn in 1974 identified nine geographical races [35] :
- Euro-Caucasian and West Atlantic;
- North Mongoloid and East Asian;
- African Negroid;
- Indian;
- Micronesian;
- Melanesian;
- American;
- Australian.
Among the great races, he singled out 32 local races: North-Western European, North-Eastern European, Alpine, Mediterranean, Iranian, East African, Sudanese, Forest Negro, Bantu, Turkic, Tibetan, North Chinese, Extreme Mongoloid, South-Eastern Asian, Indian, Duraidian , North American, Central American, Caribbean, South American, Fuegian, Lappish, Pacific Negro, African-Pygmy, Eskimo, Ainu, Murray-Australian, and Carpento-Australian, Bushme Nt and Hottentot, North American color, South African color, Latin, Neo-Hawaiian [36] .
Classification VP Alekseev
The well-known Soviet anthropologist V.P. Alekseev in his book “The Geography of Human Races” ( 1974 ) presented his racial classification scheme:
- East Amero-Asian trunk
- I. Americanoid branch
- 1. North American Local Race
- 1a Pacific group of populations
- 1b. Atlantic group of populations
- 2. Central South American Local Race
- 2a California population group
- 2b. Central American group of populations
- 2c. Andean population group
- 2g. Amazonian Populations Group
- 2d Patagonian population group
- 2nd. Fire group of populations
- 1. North American Local Race
- Ii. Asian branch
- 3. South Mongolian local race
- 3a Island group of populations
- 3b. Mainland population group
- 4. East Mongolian local race
- 4a. Far Eastern group of populations
- 4b. Amur-Sakhalin group of populations
- 5. Arctic local race
- 5a. Mainland population group
- 5 B. Island group of populations
- 6. Tibetan local race (transitional)
- 7. North Asian local race
- 7a. Central Asian group of populations
- 7b. Baikal or taiga group of populations
- 8. South Siberian local race
- 8a. Altai-Sayan group of populations
- 8b. Prithanshan group of populations
- 8c. Kazakhstan group of populations
- 9. Ural local race
- 9a. West Siberian group of populations
- 9b. Subural group of populations
- 3. South Mongolian local race
- I. Americanoid branch
- West Euro-African trunk
- Iii. Caucasoid branch
- 10. Baltic or North European local race
- 10a. Western Baltic group of populations
- 10b. Eastern Baltic group of populations
- 10c. Laponoid group of populations
- 11. Central European Local Race
- 11a Central Eastern European population group
- 11b. Western European population group
- 12. Mediterranean or Southern European local race
- 12a. Western Mediterranean population group
- 12b. Balkan-Caucasian group of populations
- 12th century Arabian-African group of populations
- 12g. Persian group of populations
- 12d. Indo-Afghan population group
- 10. Baltic or North European local race
- Iv. Negroid branch
- 13. South Indian Local Race
- 14. Ethiopian local race
- 15. The negro local race
- 15a. Sudan population group
- 15б. Восточноафриканская группа популяций
- 16. Центральноафриканская локальная раса
- 17. Южноафриканская локальная раса
- V. Австралоидная ветвь
- 18. Андаманская локальная раса
- 19. Негритосская материковая локальная раса
- 20. Негритосская филиппинская локальная раса
- 21. Австралийская локальная раса
- 22. Меланезийская локальная раса
- 23. Тасманийская локальная раса
- 24. Полинезийская локальная раса
- 25. Айнская или курильская локальная раса
- Iii. Caucasoid branch
Классификация В. В. Бунака
Советский антрополог В. В. Бунак представлял расовую дифференциацию в виде дерева ( 1980 ). Его «стволы» и «ветви» он разделял на основе представлений о древности и глубине расхождения отдельных антропологических вариантов. Основные подразделения В. В. Бунак назвал расовыми стволами: тропическим, южным, западным и восточным [20] .
- Тропический расовый ствол
- Африканская расовая ветвь
- Бушменская раса
- Негрильская раса
- Негро-гвинейская раса
- Суданская раса
- Нилотская раса
- Океанийская расовая ветвь
- Тасманийская раса
- Негритосская раса
- Папуасская раса
- Меланезийская раса
- Африканская расовая ветвь
- Южный расовый ствол
- Континентальная расовая ветвь
- Бадарийская раса
- Веддоидная раса
- Древнеиндонезийская расовая ветвь
- Австралийская раса
- Индонезийская (древняя и современная) раса
- Polynesian race
- Курильская раса
- Континентальная расовая ветвь
- Западный расовый ствол
- Кушитская расовая ветвь
- Берберская раса
- Эфиопская раса
- Средиземная расовая ветвь
- Семито-аравийская раса
- Сирийско-загросская раса
- Индо-иранская раса
- Ферганская раса
- Понтийская раса
- Кавказская раса
- Каспийская раса
- Средиземноморская расовая ветвь
- Иберийская раса
- Лигурская раса
- Нижнедунайская раса
- Балканская раса
- Европейская расовая ветвь
- Атлантическая раса
- Центральная западноевропейская раса
- Балтийская раса
- Центральная восточноевропейская раса
- Субарктическая ( лопари ) раса
- Кушитская расовая ветвь
- Восточный расовый ствол
- Уральская расовая ветвь
- Уральская раса
- Сибирская расовая ветвь
- Самодийская (нганасаны) раса
- Таежная (эвенкийская) раса
- Центральноазиатская (монгольская) раса
- Парацентральноазиатская (тюркская) раса
- Арктическая сибирская раса
- Арктическая азиатско-американская раса
- Южноазиатская расовая ветвь
- Китайская раса
- Мяо-яо раса
- Южноазиатская вьетская раса
- Южноазиатская кхмерская раса
- Островная ( японцы ) раса
- Американская расовая ветвь
- Тихоокеанская раса
- Атлантическая раса
- Центральноамериканская раса
- Амазонская раса
- Андская раса
- Неоарктическая раса
- Патагонская раса
- Уральская расовая ветвь
Классификация М. Г. Абдушелишвили
М. Г. Абдушелишвили ( 1990 ) предложил довольно дробные и точные определения отдельных расовых категорий. Наиболее крупные подразделения — континентальные расы, далее — локальные разновидности континентальных рас, затем — антропологические типы, за ними — варианты, и самая низкая категория — разновидности вариантов [37] . Его схема расовой классификации такова:
- ЗАПАДНЫЙ (Евро-африканский) расовый ствол
- Австралийская раса
- Андаманская разновидность
- андаманский тип
- Негритосская разновидность
- континентальный тип
- филиппинский тип
- Австралоидная разновидность
- австралийский тип
- Меланезийская разновидность
- меланезийский тип
- Тасманийская разновидность
- тасманийский тип
- Полинезийская (переходная) разновидность
- полинезийский тип
- Айнская (переходная) разновидность
- айнский вариант
- Андаманская разновидность
- Африканская раса
- Эфиопская (переходная) разновидность
- эфиопский тип
- Негрская разновидность
- суданский тип
- восточноафриканский тип
- Центральноафриканская разновидность
- центральноафриканский тип
- Южноафриканская разновидность
- южноафриканский тип
- Эфиопская (переходная) разновидность
- Европейская раса
- Южноиндийская (переходная) разновидность
- палеоиндийский тип
- мезоиндийский тип
- Южноевропейская (индо-средиземноморская) разновидность
- индо-евразийский тип
- переднеазиатский тип
- восточносредиземноморский тип
- западносредиземноморский тип
- Североевропейская разновидность
- западнобалтийский тип
- восточнобалтийский тип
- лапоноидный тип
- Центральноевропейская разновидность
- западноевропейский тип
- центрально-восточноевропейский тип
- Южноиндийская (переходная) разновидность
- Австралийская раса
- ВОСТОЧНЫЙ (Азиатско-американский) расовый ствол
- Азиатская раса
- Уральская (переходная) разновидность
- субуральский тип
- западносибирский тип
- Сибирская разновидность
- североазиатский тип
- центральноазиатский тип
- Южносибирская (переходная) разновидность
- казахстанский тип
- алтае-саянский тип
- притяньшаньский тип
- Тибетская (переходная) разновидность
- тибетский тип
- Южномонголоидная разновидность
- островной тип
- континентальный тип
- Восточномонголоидная разновидность
- амуро-сахалинский тип
- дальневосточный тип
- Арктическая разновидность
- островной тип
- континентальный тип
- Уральская (переходная) разновидность
- Американская раса
- Североамериканская разновидность
- атлантический тип
- тихоокеанский тип
- Центрально-южноамериканская разновидность
- калифорнийский тип
- центральноамериканский тип
- андский тип
- амазонский тип
- патагонский тип
- огнеземельский тип
- Североамериканская разновидность
- Азиатская раса
Классификация А. И. Дубова
В 1994 г. на международной конференции памяти В. П. Алексеева А. И. Дубов в своём докладе представил собственную схему деления человеческих рас. Он разделил расы на исходные и метисные. Метисные расы — это те, основные морфологические характеристики которых не могут быть получены в результате метисации современных рас. Схема А. И. Дубова такова [38] :
- Тропический (негроидный) подвид
- Койсанская раса
- Негрильская раса
- Негрская раса
- Сахельская (эфиопская) метисная раса
- Папуасско-меланезийская метисная раса
- Южный подвид
- Веддоидная раса
- Австралоидная раса
- Дравидийская метисная раса
- Полинезийская метисная раса
- Западный подвид
- Южноевропеоидная раса
- Североевропеоидная раса
- Среднеевропеоидная метисная раса
- Уральская метисная раса
- Восточный подвид
- Монголоидная раса
- Южномонголоидная метисная раса
- Американоидная метисная раса
Criticism
Согласно критикам, расовые классификации не внесли ничего нового в знание о природе человека и его культуре. Расовые классификации уже несколько десятилетий изгнаны из учебников этнологии и социальной антропологии и этой тематики стараются избегать даже в исторических исследованиях [39] . Последние исследования в области генетики показали полную несостоятельность такого рода классификаций, поэтому интерес к ним существует только на периферии научного мира.
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 География человеческих рас // Алексеев В. П. Избранное. Т. 2. Антропогеография — М.: Наука, 2007. — С. 19-21. ISBN 978-5-02-035544-6
- ↑ Хрисанфова Е. Н., Перевозчиков И. В. Антропология: Учебник. - 3rd ed. — М. : Изд-во МГУ; «Высшая школа», 2002. — С. 263.
- ↑ 1 2 Рогинский Я. Я., Левин М. Г. Антропология. — М., 1978.
- ↑ John P. Jackson, Nadine M. Weidman. Race, Racism, and Science . — New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press , 2004. — P. 14. — ISBN 0-8135-3736-3 . (eng.)
- ↑ Авдеев В. Б. Биологическая основа нордического мировоззрения (недоступная ссылка) . Дата обращения 14 июня 2009. Архивировано 8 марта 2009 года.
- ↑ John P. Jackson, Nadine M. Weidman. Race, Racism, and Science . — New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press , 2004. — P. 16. — ISBN 0-8135-3736-3 . (eng.)
- ↑ John P. Jackson, Nadine M. Weidman. Race, Racism, and Science . — New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press , 2004. — P. 18. — ISBN 0-8135-3736-3 . (eng.)
- ↑ Анучин Д. Н. Расы или породы человечества // Брокгауз и Эфрон , том XXVI, Спб., 1899
- ↑ 1 2 Первые схемы (Ф. Бернье, К. Линней, И. Блюменбах, Ж. Бюффон) // Богатенков Д. В., Дробышевский С. В. Антропология.
- ↑ John P. Jackson, Nadine M. Weidman. Race, Racism, and Science . — New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press , 2004. — P. 19—20. — ISBN 0-8135-3736-3 . (eng.)
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ловецкий А. Л. Краткое руководство к познанию племен человеческого рода // Русская расовая теория до 1917 года. Выпуск № 2. — М.: ФЭРИ-В, 2004. — С. 70-71.
- ↑ Bruce David Baum. The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race . — NYU Press, 2006. — P. 105. (англ.)
- ↑ Ешевский С. В. О значении рас в истории // Русская расовая теория до 1917 года. Том первый. — М.: ФЭРИ-В, 2002. — С. 76-77.
- ↑ Принципы расовых классификаций // Богатенков Д. В., Дробышевский С. В. Антропология.
- ↑ Расы или породы человечества (недоступная ссылка) (недоступная ссылка с 14-06-2016 [1137 дней]) // Малый энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона
- ↑ Philip Yale Nicholson. Who Do We Think We Are?: Race and Nation in the Modern World . — ME Sharpe, 2000. — P. 113. (англ.)
- ↑ Bruce David Baum. The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race . — NYU Press, 2006. — P. 106. (англ.)
- ↑ History of the Proceedings of the Anthropological Society of Paris //The Anthropological Review. Anthropological Society of London. London, Trübner and Co., 1863. Vol.1. P. 281 (англ.)
- ↑ Joseph Deniker. The Races of Man: an outline of anthropology and ethnography . — 1900. — P. 282. (англ.)
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Бунак В. В. Род Homo, его возникновение и последующая эволюция. — М. : Наука , 1980.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Joseph Deniker. The Races of Man: an outline of anthropology and ethnography . — 1900. — P. 283. (англ.)
- ↑ Richard Lydekker. Sir Willam Flower . — READ BOOKS, 2008. — P. 165. (англ.)
- ↑ Штрац К. Расовая женская красота. — М. : Белые альвы, 2003.
- ↑ 1 2 Классификация И. Деникера (1889—1902 гг.) // Богатенков Д. В., Дробышевский С. В. Антропология.
- ↑ Carleton S. Coon. The Races of Europe (1939). — P. 283 (англ.)
- ↑ Хрисанфова Е. Н., Перевозчиков И. В. Антропология: Учебник. - 3rd ed. — М. : Изд-во МГУ ; « Высшая школа », 2002. — С. 267.
- ↑ Классификация рас по von Eickstedt (1934—1937) (недоступная ссылка)
- ↑ О возникновении человеческих рас // Мулдашев Э. От кого мы произошли? Сенсационные результаты научной гималайской экспедиции. — М.: «Пресс Лтд», 1999
- ↑ Классификация рас по Hooton 1946 (недоступная ссылка)
- ↑ Система Г. Ф. Дебеца (1958 г.) // Богатенков Д. В., Дробышевский С. В. Антропология.
- ↑ John R. Baker. Race. — New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1974. — P. 625. (англ.)
- ↑ Классификация рас по Biasutti (1953) (недоступная ссылка)
- ↑ Лидия Тегако, Анатолий Зеленков. Современная антропология. — Минск, 2011. С.65.
- ↑ Классификация Я. Я. Рогинского и М. Г. Левина (1963 г.) // Богатенков Д. В., Дробышевский С. В. Антропология.
- ↑ Joseph D. McNair. What is 'race'? // Personal Transformations: The Process of Multicultural Awareness/Consciousness, 1998
- ↑ Colin Kidd. The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world, 1600-2000 . — Cambridge University Press, 2006. — P. 10. (англ.)
- ↑ Классификация рас по Абдушелишвили (1990) (недоступная ссылка) . Дата обращения 4 июня 2011. Архивировано 5 декабря 2017 года.
- ↑ Дубов А. И. К вопросу о классификации человеческих рас // Горизонты антропологии: Труды международной научной конференции памяти академика В.П. Алексеева. — М. : Наука, 2003. — С. 108—114 .
- ↑ Petermann, 2004 .
Literature
- Алексеев В. П. География человеческих рас. — М. , 1974.
- Рогинский Я. Я., Левин М. Г. Антропология. — М. , 1978.
- Бунак В. В. Род Homo, его возникновение и последующая эволюция. — М. : Наука, 1980.
- Petermann, Werner,. Die Geschichte der Ethnologie. — Wuppertal: Peter Hammer Verlag GmbH, 2004.
Links
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- Богатенков Д. В., Дробышевский С. В. Антропология
- Anthropologica.net
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