The occupation of Japan by the Allied forces ( Jap. 連 合 国 軍 の 日本 日本 Rengo: Kokugun senrё: Kao Nihon ) took place in 1945-52 after its surrender in World War II. During this period, Japan did not have state sovereignty, the government and the emperor were subordinate to the Supreme Commander of the Allied forces. The most important task of the occupation forces was the demilitarization of Japan. During this period, the Tokyo Process was held, a new Constitution was adopted, and the restoration of the Japanese economy began. The occupation ended after the entry into force of the San Francisco Peace Treaty .
Military occupation | |||||
Japan's occupation | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
合 国 軍 占領 下 の 日本 | |||||
| |||||
Occupied Japan. 1 - Japanese metropolis, occupied by the United States. 2 - Taiwan, annexed by China. 3 - South Sakhalin and Kuriles, annexed by the USSR. 4 - Korea, divided into Soviet and American zones of occupation. 5 - Kwantung Oblast, annexed by the USSR. 6 - South Manchurian Railway, annexed by China. 7 - South Pacific Mandate, occupied by the United States. | |||||
← → → September 2, 1945 - April 28, 1952 | |||||
Capital | Tokyo | ||||
Largest cities | Tokyo , Osaka , Kyoto | ||||
Languages) | Japanese | ||||
Currency unit | yen | ||||
Square | 377,835 km² | ||||
Form of government | Military occupation | ||||
Heads of State | |||||
Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces | |||||
• 1945-1951 | Douglas MacArthur | ||||
• 1951-1952 | Matthew Ridgway | ||||
Emperor of Japan | |||||
• 1945-1952 | Shova | ||||
Japanese Prime Minister | |||||
• September 2, 1945 - October 9, 1945 | Prince Naruhiko | ||||
• October 9, 1945 - May 22, 1946 | Kijuro Sidehara | ||||
• May 22, 1946 - May 24, 1947 | Shigeru Yoshida | ||||
• May 24, 1947 - March 10, 1948 | Tetsu katayama | ||||
• March 10, 1948 - October 15, 1948 | Hitoshi ishida | ||||
• October 15, 1948 - April 28, 1952 | Shigeru Yoshida |
Organization and control of occupied Japan
In case of continued resistance to Japan after the occupation of its colonies and local strike operations (including atomic bombing ), which would require bloody battles and was beyond the power of the United States, the United States developed a general plan for dividing Japan into dividing the country into combat and occupation zones and the Soviet Union had an operational plan for the Soviet occupation, since landing on Hokkaido two infantry divisions, which was to follow the Manchurian and Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk land, Kuril and three Korean tactically and landing operations of the Soviet-Japanese War, according to the order, gave the commander of Soviet forces in the Far East, Marshal Vasilevsky, but deferred to the new instructions Bids [1] . In connection with the surrender of Japan, the implementation of plans was not required, the occupation of Japan by Western troops took place without bloodshed.
The occupation policy of the Allied powers towards Japan was determined primarily by the Potsdam Declaration . But the basis of a specific policy regarding Japan was a document prepared by the US State Department with the participation of the military and maritime ministries and published on September 23, 1945 under the title “Basic principles of US policy towards Japan during the initial period of occupation”. [2] It was envisaged that the commander-in-chief "would exercise his power through the Japanese government machinery and agency, including the emperor ..." The Japanese people were recognized "the right to change government in Japan," provided that such a change would not contradict the security of the American army and the objectives occupation policy. The document also referred to the demilitarization of Japan, the elimination of the ideology of militarism and aggression, and the development of the world economy.
At the meeting of foreign ministers of the Soviet Union , the United States and the United Kingdom , which was held in Moscow in December 1945, it was decided to establish the Far Eastern Commission (DCK) (with permanent residence in Washington ) and the Allied Council (located in Tokyo ) for Japan, which Began to operate since 1946. The Far Eastern Commission was to develop the foundations of the occupation policy of the Allied powers towards Japan, and the Allied Council to advise the commander-in-chief of the occupying forces. In the future, as the international situation changed, in particular with the exacerbation of relations between the United States and the Soviet Union, the role and importance of these international bodies weakened dramatically.
To implement the military occupation of Japan itself, land, naval and air forces under the general command of General MacArthur were introduced into its territory. But the government of Japan was not of a purely military nature, the rule of the Allies over Japan was carried out indirectly: through the Japanese government bodies. On the ground, in all prefectures and cities, the 8th US Army created the relevant departments, which supervised and supervised the activities of the Japanese authorities. These bodies existed throughout the occupation period, but the number of personnel in them as the tasks of the occupation were fulfilled, starting from 1949, gradually decreased.
Occupation Policy
Democratization Policy
- Directive on the elimination of restrictions on political and religious freedoms and other civil rights (October 4, 1945).
- The permission of activity of the trade unions forbidden during the war (1946).
- Permitting opposition political parties, including the CPJ and the PCOS .
- Granting women’s right to vote.
In December 1945, on the basis of the directive of the occupation authorities, the Shinto religion was separated from the state, and in the New Year's address to the people in 1946, the emperor publicly denied his “divine origin” (see Ningen-Sengen ).
Economic Policy
- Liquidation of zaibatsu (large monopolistic concerns).
- The agrarian reform of 1946-1949, as a result of which landowner land tenure was almost destroyed, and out of tenants the peasants became owners of the land. The group of developers of the reform was headed by the American economist Wolf Ladezhinsky . In the process of reform, about 5,800,000 acres (about 2,300 thousand hectares) of land were forcibly bought from large landowners, which accounted for about 38% of the country's agricultural land. The land purchased was sold to the peasants, who had leased this land from the landlords until that time, on a long-term installment plan. Inflation quickly zeroed the debts of the peasants to repurchase, and by 1950, former tenants had become three million owner farmers. This outcome of the reform put an end to the power of large landowners and largely eliminated the social basis for leftist sentiment in the Japanese countryside.
- The D. Dodge Line (1949–1950) is the stabilization line for the Japanese economy, developed by the American financier D. Dodge. An important part of the “Dodge Line” was the reform of the tax system of Japan, carried out in 1949, the project of which was developed by a group of American experts headed by Shope. The essence of the reform was to increase taxes in order to overcome inflation and stabilize the economy. The central place was occupied by direct taxes , which were based on the principle of progressive income tax . The main result of the financial reform of Dodge was that the deficit-free state budget was laid out and accepted for execution, in which revenues not only covered expenses, but significantly exceeded them. This financial reform also had a beneficial effect on the state of Japan’s foreign trade: it stabilized the yen and allowed the state to get out of the protracted financial crisis.
In 1945, the occupation authorities began issuing into circulation the occupation yen , which were in circulation in parallel with the Japanese yen. In 1948, the occupying yen was withdrawn from circulation, with the exception of Okinawa, where it was declared the only legal means of payment, completely replacing the Japanese yen in circulation.
The culture of occupied Japan. Censorship
During the first years of occupation, a number of laws and directives were issued by the American command, basic rights and freedoms were declared, political and cultural figures were released from prisons, pro-fascist associations were disbanded (including the Japanese Literary Society and the Association of Writers of the Great East Asia), censorship in cinema was abolished and theater art. At the same time, the scale of transformations was curtailed by a number of special instructions prohibiting, in particular, the mention of the cruelties of the American military [3] .
Orders issued in the first post-war month opened the way for the Westernization of Japanese culture and lifestyle to the American administration. At the headquarters of the occupation forces, the Civil Information and Education Directorate was created, whose functions included directing various areas of culture, monitoring the execution of headquarters regulations in this area and for the first time stopping the manifestations of the ideology of Japanese militarism. The department of civil censorship (Minkan dzokhokyoku) censored all forms of information - books, films, radio programs, correspondence, etc. In September 1945, the Press Code (Presu Kodo) was issued, a directive prohibiting the publication of criticism of the occupation administration and any material that could damage American politics [3] .
One of the measures to democratize Japanese society was the regulation in the field of religion. According to the directive of December 15, 1945, all Shinto institutions (temples, schools, etc.) were separated from the state, and the Temples Bureau of the Ministry of the Interior and the institutions involved in the training of priests and the study of this religion were disbanded. The spread of Shinto ideas in schools was banned, and Shinto altars were removed from all schools. At the same time, the influence of Christianity increased: under the auspices of the American authorities in Japan, missionaries intensified their activities. Catholics and representatives of other faiths have created a large network of schools, seminaries and universities in the country [4] .
The revival of cultural life, which began with the end of World War II, also affected painting. While during the war years, according to the policy of the “Japanese spirit”, the direction of traditional Japanese nihong painting was planted, and artists based on European traditions were forced to practically cease activity, after the war several organizations working in the genre of European oil painting appeared - “Dokuritsu bijutsu” Kyokai "(" Association of Independent Art ")," Issue Kai "and others. [5]
The “reverse course” in the US cultural policy was expressed in the illegal persecution of cultural figures, the desire to accelerate the process of Americanization of Japanese society and the general strengthening of control over cultural life. From June 1949 to February 1950, the first wave of the “purge of the Reds” took place: repressions directed against educators met with resistance from students and their parents; there were cases when entire school classes, protesting against the teacher’s dismissal, went to the mountains, refusing to return [6] . At the same time, as a reaction to the Americanization of culture and the policy of the “reverse course” in Japan, interest in the country's cultural heritage increased: classical literature, traditional theater, everyday culture ( tea ceremony , ikebana art). For example, in 1952, a full response to the modern Japanese language of the classic Murasaki Shikibu novel “ Genji-monogatari ”, made by Junichiro Tanizaki [7] , received a big resonance.
Theater
During the Second World War, those actors who were not mobilized into the army were forced to participate in performances for the soldiers [8] . By order of the Information Department, the Japan Union of Mobile Theaters was created, whose groups dispersed in Japan and demonstrated programs designed to mobilize the population [9] . As a result of the bombing, a significant part of the theater premises was destroyed, and few of the buildings that survived were transformed by the occupying authorities into cinemas and clubs for the military [5] [10] .
In September 1945, the Directorate for Civil Information and Enlightenment issued a directive “On the direction of creative activity in the cinema and theater”, which determined what principles the figures of these arts should adhere to. The traditional theater of Japan - kabuki , but , ningyo-joruri - was declared anti-democratic [11] . According to the testimony of American theater critic Erl Ernst, appointed immediately after the war by an expert on the theater at the Headquarters of the occupying troops, the Office’s theater section “viewed the entire repertoire of Japanese theaters, especially the traditional Dzururi and Kabuki theater,” and after consulting with Japanese scientists “the section concluded that most of the most popular plays of traditional theater are based on feudal ideology and are not suitable for a people who intend to abandon war forever and take the path of democracy " [8] . Admitted to the production of the play were included in a special list. The theaters were required to annually renew the repertoire by at least one third, and the English translation of the new plays was to be provided to the Department of Civil Censorship at the Office a week before the intended premiere [12] [11] .
Such an attitude towards the theater caused discontent among the public, and notes began to appear in newspapers, the authors of which expressed doubts that the traditional theater could survive in such conditions [13] . Nevertheless, the artists who were in evacuation, who worked in the brigades of the Japanese Union of Mobile Theaters and were repressed during the war began to return to the scene [5] . At first, the development of theater was hampered by high taxes and the lack of a material base [5] . In the most difficult situation was the theater but . In August, shortly before the end of the war, an association of actors and musicians was created, but Nogaku Kyokai [14] , which, bringing together about a thousand people, was headed by Keith Minoru. The purpose of the organization was to save but from degradation and destruction [15] . The association provided props for the troupe and negotiated with the occupying authorities about the planned productions; private and public schools were created to train actors and musicians — Nogakujuku and Nogaku Yoseikai; the magazine No was published (from 1946 to 1953) [16] .
The first post-war performance was the performance “ Sukeroku ” by Dziheya Tsuuti , shown in September 1945, and one of the most popular classical repertoire of kabuki [5] . In December, through the efforts of the three singing groups of the Bungakudza, Hayyudza and Tokyo Geijutsu gekijo theater, the Cherry Orchard by A.P. Chekhov was staged, which marked the return of Russian drama to the Japanese stage [17] . In 1946, repressed Tomoyoshi Murayama returned to theatrical activities; a singe troupe organized by him “Shinkyo gekidan” included 40 actors with the most left-wing views. The classic Kabuki repertoire has been critically rethought; In October 1946, under the direction of Murayama, the antifascist play of the American writer and playwright Lillian Hellman “The Guardian on the Rhine ” was staged at the Zesindza Theater [18] .
Literature
At the end of the war, such literary, theatrical and socio-political journals resumed as Bungei Shundju (Literary Chronicle), Teatoro (Theater), Chuo Crown (Central Review), new editions appeared. - “Cinsei” (“New Life”), “Sinteo Bungei” (“Literature of the New Direction”), “Tembo” (“Panorama”). The increase in the number of publications has opened up new opportunities for Japanese authors. In 1946, Cafu Nagai published several works ("The Dancer", "Unsolicited Notes", "Rise and Fall", etc.), which generally reflected the pre-war experience of the writer. In the same year, two major neo-humanist writers published their works: Hakutö Masamune (“The New to the New,” “The Changing World”, “The Suffering of the Victims of War”) and Naoya Siga (“The Gray Moon”).
The revival of the democratic literary movement suppressed in the 1930s began, with literary critic Korehito Kurahara as well as writers Sunao Tokunaga and Yuriko Miyamoto at the head. In December 1945, the New Japanese Literature Society (Shin Nichon Bungaku Kai) was created, which aimed to fight for the democratic development of Japanese literature [20] . The society everywhere organized literary circles for young people and led the work on attracting democratically-minded writers into its ranks [21] .
Yuriko Miyamoto, who experienced a new flowering of creativity in this period, published several works: Futiso (1946), Plain Bansyu (1946-1947), Two Houses (1947), Milestones (1947-1949), the first two of which show life in the country after the surrender, and the latter are the final parts of her autobiographical trilogy. Sunao Tokunaga published the story “Sleep in Peace, Wife!” (1946–48), in which he revealed his experiences of the prewar and war years, and the novel Silent Mountains (1950), in which he depicted the struggle of the working class in new conditions [20] .
Poetry also experienced a democratic upsurge: a section of poets was created under the Society of Japanese Literature. The result of her work was the release of the magazine "New Japanese Poets" ("Shin Nihon Sidzin"). The society was joined by poets such as Jun Okamoto , Mitsuhara Kaneko , Kiyoshi Akiyama , one of the greatest poets of the period of the proletarian literary movement Shigeji Tsuboi published in 1946 a collection of poems “Fruits” [22] .
At the end of the war, another writers' association was formed - the “Postwar Group” (“Sengo ha”), whose members set themselves the formation of a “modern free man” and an in-depth image of the personality [23] . С января 1946 года «Сэнго ха» стала выпускать журнал «Новая литература» («Киндай бунгаку»), вокруг которого постепенно сложилась группа завоёвывавших внимание читателя писателей — Хироси Нома , Риндзо Сиина , Харуо Умэдзаки , Синъитиро Накамура и др. [21]
Участникам «Послевоенной группы» было свойственно резко отрицательное отношение к войне, значительную роль в их творчестве играла критическая литература. Среди проблем, поднимавшихся «Сэнго ха» — вопрос взаимоотношения искусства и политики, а также вопрос о «современной личности»: представители группы, объяснявшие отсутствие организованного сопротивления распространению фашизма интеллигенцией отсутствием у японцев качеств «раскрепощённой современной личности», делали вывод, что главной задачей литературы является выработка и последующее распространение правильного понимания отношений личности и общества, прежде пренебрегавшего интересами индивидуума [24] .
Рост интереса к культурному наследию в области литературы выразился в увеличении числа изданий, посвящённых таким жанрам поэзии, как танка и хайку: «Танка дзасси» («Журнал танка», 1948), «Танка хайку кэнкю» («Изучение танка и хайку», 1948), «Танка сэйтё» («Звук танка», 1950) и др. Эта тенденция привела и к созданию Дзюндзи Киноситой нового жанра пьес минвагэки на темы народных сказаний. Пьесы Киноситы ставились коллективами различных направлений и жанров и вызвали такой интерес, что даже было создано Общество по изучению народных сказаний. В конце 1940-х годов приобретают популярность литературные произведения, в которых воспевается специфика национальных обычаев и традиций: Дзюнъитиро Танидзаки публикует роман « Мелкий снег » (1947), а Ясунари Кавабата — « Тысячу журавлей » (1949—1951) [25] .
Ещё один японский писатель, Тацудзо Исикава , в романе-эпопее « Тростник под ветром » (1949), описывая время с конца Второй мировой войны до запрещения всеобщей забастовки штабом в феврале 1947 года, говорил о недопустимости повторения той трагедии, что пережил японский народ в годы войны. В 1952 году свой антивоенный роман « Огни на равнине » на основе личных воспоминаний создал Сёхэй Оока ; по сюжету произведения рядовой Тамура становится свидетелем того, как его озверевшие товарищи доходят до каннибализма [26] .
Cinema
Значительное внимание Управление гражданской информации и просвещения уделяло восстановлению японского кинопроизводства . В октябре 1945 года была издана директива, определявшая принципы, которыми следовало руководствоваться участникам съёмочного процесса: отказ от идеи японского милитаризма, стимулирование либерального движения и создание условий, при которых исключается новая угроза миру со стороны Японии. Для осуществления этого распоряжения в декабре 1945 года была создана Федерация кинопродюсеров (Эйга сэйсакуся рэнгокай). Ещё раньше, в ноябре, был определён список из 277 старых фильмов, которые было запрещено демонстрировать из-за их направленных на пропаганду националистских и милитаристских идей [27] .
В 1946 году режиссёром Акирой Куросавой был выпущен фильм « Без сожалений о нашей юности », в котором рассказывалось о руководителе антивоенного движения, Тадаси Имаи — лента « Враги народа », обличавшая руководителей Японии военных лет, а Кэйсукэ Киноситой — картина « Утро в доме Осонэ » об испытаниях в годы войны либерально настроенной семьи. В 1947 году вышел фильм « Война и мир » Камэи Фумио и Сацуо Ямамото , носивший выраженный антимилитаристский характер [28] . Суровая реальность послевоенной Японии нашла отражение в таких фильмах 1948 года, как « Дети улья » Хироси Симидзу и « Пьяный ангел » Акиры Куросавы; в 1949 году Ясудзиро Одзу снял картину « Поздняя весна » о мирной жизни японских буржуа [29] .
Преобразования открыли путь на японский экран ранее цензурировавшихся любовных сцен и сцен с поцелуями. Руководство штаба не стало поддерживать это табу и не стало препятствовать потоку американских фильмов, наводнивших послевоенную Японию. Благодаря этому в стране появились «фильмы с поцелуями» («сэппун эйга») и «фильмы с обнажённым телом» («хадака эйга»): благодаря возможности включать в картины любовные сцены японские кинематографисты получили возможность привлечь зрителей и хорошо заработать (например, фильмы 1946 года «Ученица и учитель» и «Ночной поцелуй») [30] .
В кинематографе наиболее сильно из всех видов искусства проявилась политика «обратного курса». В 1948 году было уволено 270 сотрудников кинокомпании « Тохо », выпускавшей фильмы с осуждением бюрократии и героизацией коммунистов революционеров. После забастовки, объявленной в «Тохо» и продолжавшейся 195 дней были уволены ещё 100 человек — профсоюзных активистов и коммунистов [6] .
Оставшиеся без работы создали собственные объединения, организовали сбор средств и наладили внестудийный выпуск продукции, таким образом положив начало независимому японскому кинематографу. Крупные же кинокомпании всё больше уделяли внимание выпуску антикоммунистических и милитаристских фильмов [31] . Впоследствии период с 1948 по 1953 год оказался запечатлён в фильме «Японская трагедия» (1958) Кэйсукэ Киноситы, в которой рассказывается история бедной женщины, не интересующейся политикой и не понимающей значения послевоенных событий [32] .
Народная поддержка сделала возможным выпуск новых фильмов [31] ; существуя за счёт помощи зрителей, независимому кино удалось создать свою прокатную сеть [33] . В 1951 году вышла картина «А всё-таки мы живём», рассказывающая о жизни японских рабочих, режиссёра Тадаси Имаи [31] , работавшего в документально-реалистическом стиле [33] . В послевоенную эпоху Имаи стал всё больше внимания уделять гуманистическим вопросам, предпочитая их развлекательной стороне кино, и исследовал причины несчастий в жизни добрых людей. Так, в его фильме 1952 года « Школа эха » рассказана история молодого учителя, который вместе со своими учениками, продолжает занятия в своей деревушке, несмотря на бедность [34] .
В 1952 году выходит фильм « Дети атомной бомбы » в стиле документального кино по сценарию Канэто Синдо , потерявшем в день бомбардировки Хиросимы свою семью [33] . В послевоенное время продолжал активно работать классик японского кинематографа Кэндзи Мидзогути : его фильм «Женщина Сайкаку» о дочери придворного [35] получил награду на Венецианском кинофестивале 1952 года. В том же году премию « Оскар » как лучший фильм на иностранном языке получила лента « Расёмон » (1951) Акиры Куросавы, затрагивающая тему сексуальных отношений и психологии [36] [29] .
Notes
- ↑ ЦАМО РФ , ф. 66, оп. 178499, д. 1, л. 265—266
- ↑ Каирская декларация, Крымское соглашение, Потсдамская декларация, решение Московского совещания и другие документы, связанные с капитуляцией Японии. Сборник документов 1943—1946. М., 1947. с. 43-49.
- ↑ 1 2 Попов и др., 1978 , с. 99—100.
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 101.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 Попов и др., 1978 , с. 104
- ↑ 1 2 Попов и др., 1978 , с. 111.
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 112-113.
- ↑ 1 2 Гришелёва, 1977 , с. 95
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 98.
- ↑ Leiter, 2006 , p. xli.
- ↑ 1 2 Молодяков и др., 2007 , с. 291.
- ↑ Гришелёва, 1977 , с. 95—96.
- ↑ Гришелёва, 1977 , с. 96
- ↑ Leiter et al., 2009 , p. 176.
- ↑ Гришелёва, 1977 , с. 42-43.
- ↑ Гришелёва, 1977 , с. 43.
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 105
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 110.
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 102—103.
- ↑ 1 2 Попов и др., 1978 , с. 106
- ↑ 1 2 Попов и др., 1978 , с. 107.
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 109.
- ↑ Молодяков и др., 2007 , с. 292.
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 108
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 113.
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 115
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 101—102.
- ↑ Сато, 1988 , с. 72.
- ↑ 1 2 Сато, 1988 , с. 207.
- ↑ Попов и др., 1978 , с. 103.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Попов и др., 1978 , с. 114—115.
- ↑ Сато, 1988 , с. 80
- ↑ 1 2 3 Молодяков и др., 2007 , с. 294—295.
- ↑ Сато, 1988 , с. 74—75.
- ↑ Сато, 1988 , с. 221.
- ↑ Молодяков и др., 2007 , с. 293—294.
Literature
- Работы по истории Японии
- Ерёмин В. Н. История правовой системы Японии / Отв. ed. А. А. Кириченко. — М. : РОССПЭН, 2010. — 293 с. - 800 copies — ISBN 978-5-8243-1391-8 .
- История Японии (1945—1975) / Отв. ed. В. А. Попов. — М. : Наука, 1978. — 541 с. — 16 700 экз.
- History of Japan / Ed. A. E. Zhukova. — М. : Институт востоковедения РАН , 1998. — Т. 2. 1868—1998. — 703 с. — ISBN 5-89282-073-4 .
- Молодяков В. Э. , Молодякова Э. В. , Маркарьян С. Б. История Японии. XX век / Отв. ed. В. М. Алпатов . — М. : Крафт+, 2007. — 528 с. — (История стран Востока. XX век). - 1000 copies — ISBN 978-5-89282-295-4 .
- Работы по истории культуры Японии
- Гришелёва Л. Д. Театр современной Японии. — М. : Искусство, 1977. — 237 с. - 25 000 copies
- Сато Т. Кино Японии. — М. : Радуга, 1988. — 224 с. - 25 000 copies — ISBN 5-05-002303-3 .
- Leiter SL Historical Dictionary of Japanese Traditional Theatre : [ eng ] . — Scarecrow Press, 2006. — 632 p. — (Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts). — ISBN 978-0-8108-5527-4 .
- Rising from the flames: the rebirth of theater in occupied Japan, 1945-1952 : [ eng ] / Edited by Samuel L. Leiter. — Lexington Books, 2009. — 462 p. — ISBN 978-0-7391-2818-3 .