Rustem Pasha

It is traditionally believed that Rustem Pasha was a native of the Bosnian Opukovich family or Chigalich living in Sarajevo ^{[1] [2] [3]} . However, some sources claim that he was a Croat ^[4] from Skradin ^[5] , a Serb or an Albanian ^{[6] [7]} . In documents from 1557 and 1561, the father of Rustem Pasha is Abdurrahman or Abdurrahim. In addition, it is believed that Rustem had two brothers, the Ottoman admiral Sinan Pasha ^[8] and Mustafa Bey, and sister Nefise; they all professed Islam ^[9] .

As a child, he and his brother Sinan arrived in Istanbul , where he began his studies in Enderun . In 1526, he participated in the battle of in the post of (Sultan squire) ^{[1] [2]} . After this battle, his career advancement began: he received the post of mirakhur (first horse) ^[10] . In 1533, Rustem Pasha was appointed governor of Teke, later Beylerbey of Diyarbakir , and in 1538 - Beylerbey of Anatolia . In 1539, he became the third vizier of the Divan . On November 26, 1539, with the consent of the Sultan Suleiman, Rustem married his daughter Mikhrim Sultan . At the same time, he received the title of (son-in-law of the Sultan) ^[3] .

In 1541, Rustem Pasha became the second vizier. In 1544, between Suleiman Pasha , who was then the great Vizier, and Khusrev Pasha , a skirmish took place on the council of Divan in front of the Sultan. It came to a fight, as a result, both Pasha were removed from their posts. The post of the great vizier went to Rustem ^[7] . After Mustafa was executed in October 1553 "to maintain world order", the Janissaries demanded that the great vizier be punished, believing him to be involved in the death of their favorite shekhzade ^[11] . Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska Sultan begged her husband not to listen to slanderers and spare their son-in-law for his daughter ^[12] . Rustem Pasha was removed from his post and spent the next year in Uskudar ^[7] . In 1555, Rustem Pasha accused Kara Ahmed Pasha of bribery and obtained his execution from Suleiman I ^[13] . Thus, Rustem Pasha, with the support of Mikhrim and Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska, regained the position of great vizier ^{[1] [10]} . He died on July 10 or 12, 1561 ^{[6] [7]} , presumably from dropsy ^[14] . He was buried in the Shehzade complex in Istanbul, in a turbine built at the request of Mihrimah Sinan ^{[3] [15]} .

The miniature from Suleiman-name, which presumably depicts Rustem Pasha, is probably the only image of the great vizier. The miniature illustrates the scene from the first period of the reign of Rustem Pasha, but does not say anything about him as a person ^[16] . His appearance, character and influence were to some extent described by the Venetian ambassador Bernardo Navagero in 1553. He wrote: “Rustem Pasha is small in stature, with a red swollen face resembling that of a leper. It should be noted that in his eyes one can see a trick talking about business acumen. He acts friendly and friendly. ^[17] There is no greater praise for him than the fact that Sultan Suleiman considers him a valuable and wise adviser ” ^[18] .

Modern scholars describe Rustem Pasha on the one hand as a master of political intrigue and an ambiguous personality ^[1] , and on the other hand claim that he was an incorruptible person and was not involved in any form of corruption ^[19] . However, despite this, throughout his life Rustem Pasha was repeatedly accused of corruption ^[20] . Ottoman historians of the 16th – 17th centuries attribute to him correct behavior, sobriety and piety ^[4] . They claimed that he admitted his mistakes and tried not to repeat them ^[21] ; and they criticized him except for the dislike of dervishes and poets ^[22] . It was the dislike of poets that formed the basis of mocking verses of Tashlydzhaly ^{[23] [24]} :

The Ottoman community condemned Rustem Pasha in connection with the execution of Shehzade Mustafa. He was considered a mean and greedy "vizier-devil" ^[25] . The dislike of the people was fueled by the "Elegy" of Tashlydzhaly, in which he openly accused the great vizier of involvement in the death of Mustafa. Rustem Pasha, with the approval of the Sultan, issued a decree on the expulsion of Tashlydzhaly Yahya-bey for life in the estate near Zvornik ^{[26] [27]} (according to other sources in Temeshvar ^[28] ).

Some European diplomats and travelers who met with Rustem Pasha described him as “a person with a shrewd mind” ^{[29] [30]} , holding himself “always gloomily, always rudely” ^{[31] [32]} . Others often accused him of bribery and theft ^[33] . He was considered greedy; all his motives were primarily aimed at obtaining benefits for himself, including money ^[34] . In addition to all this, many Europeans considered him guilty of the death of Mustafa ^[35] .

There was an anecdote in the course of how exactly Rustem Pasha was able to receive the favor of Suleiman and marry Mihrim. Fearing Pasha’s exaltation in the event of marriage to a sultan’s daughter, Rustem’s opponents started a rumor that he was sick with leprosy . However, the doctors who examined Rustem found lice on his shirt, which refuted rumors about the disease, because lice do not settle on leprosy patients. So Rustem Pasha became the son-in-law of the Sultan ^{[4] [36] [37]} .

Rustem Pasha together with Mihrimah Sultan and Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska Sultan formed an inner circle of influence on the decisions of Suleiman I ^[39] . In addition, they were supported by Sheikh-ul-Islam Ebussuud Effendi ^[40] . This is confirmed by the fact that Ebusuud supported the decision of the sultan to execute the eldest son born of Mahidevran ^[41] . Thus, the path to the throne was open to one of the sons of Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska.

Suleiman appreciated the financial abilities of Rustem: he was able to increase the capital of the empire several times. Without major financial investments, it would not be possible to carry out numerous military campaigns, architectural projects, water supply improvement projects in Istanbul , Mecca and Jerusalem and other projects. Rustem Pasha himself was also not poor, partly because of his position. Almost all financial transactions took place under his control. In the numerous estates of the great vizier, agriculture was restored and expanded. He also benefited from thriving trade with Europe and India. ^[39]

After the death of Rustem Pasha, a list of estates of the deceased was transferred to the treasury. In addition, his condition included 1,700 slaves, thousands of military horses and camels, as well as saddles and gilded stirrups, armor, weapons, and more. In addition, there were a large number of gold and silver coins, precious stones, carpets, more than 5000 books ^[42] . In addition, Rustem Pasha had numerous farms and funds ^[43] .

Under the leadership of Rustem Pasha, the practice of gifts (jagize, ) began, which later grew into the purchase of posts ^{[2] [44]} .

Rustem Pasha achieved the greatest success in foreign policy in 1547 by concluding an agreement on a five-year truce with Karl Habsburg . One of the conditions of the truce was the payment of the Ottoman Empire 30,000 ducats. Rustem Pasha received hunting dogs and falcons as a gift, and for the Sultan, the master’s personal watchmaking ^{[45] [46]} .

As a military commander, Rustem Pasha was not successful. The only major campaign in which he was commander ended for him by removing the great vizier from his post: in 1553, during a campaign in Persia, the Janissaries refused to obey him. Since Suleiman was not at the head of the army, the Janissaries decided to submit to Shehzade Mustafa. This news infuriated Suleiman ^[47] . Mustafa was executed, and Rustem Pasha was removed from his post and sent to Uskudar ^[48] .

Rustem Pasha was a staunch Sunni of the Hanafi madhhab . He took his religious duties very seriously: he never missed the prescribed prayers, and in addition he liked to listen to the reading of the Koran . He followed all the religious principles that the Sultan Suleiman adhered to and recommended by Ebusuud Effendi. They were reflected in the inscriptions collected for the Rustem Pasha Mosque supposedly by Sheikh Hakim-Celebi. The faith of Rustem Pasha is reflected in numerous religious foundations. They made it possible to support the population, which in turn offered prayers for the Sultan. He coordinated the work of the funds with the sultan himself, his wife and her mother ^[49] . Numerous specimens of the Koran were found on the estates of Rustem Pasha, confirming its religiosity and the activity of spreading Islam ^[43] . Despite the intolerance of Rustem Pasha to people of a different faith, Ambassador Navagero spoke with Rustem more than any of his predecessors. Rustem Pasha, like the ambassador himself, did not have confidence in the Gentile, but with him the “rating” of Christians rose more than ever ^[18] .

Charity

The charters of the fund from 1544, 1557, 1560 and 1561, as well as the posthumous from 1570 indicate that Rustem Pasha used his huge fortune for charity. Numerous charitable foundations and related facilities were created, which served to provide funding for the projects of these funds during his life and after his death. Not a single great vizier could achieve such a scale before him. These funds were almost always located either in the two main cities of Istanbul and Edirne or in the places where important trade routes pass between Esztergom in the north and Medina in the south, as well as between Skopje in the west and Van in the east. Thus, they were also an important factor in enhancing the production economy and trade ^[50] . In particular, the great vizier personally took care of silk production and silk trade: he facilitated the opening of silk factories in Bursa , the silk factory in Istanbul, and also transformed the indoor bazaar in Sarajevo into a silk trade center in 1551 ^[18] .

The most famous charity project is the Rustem Pasha Mosque in Istanbul. It was completed posthumously at the initiative of Rustem Pasha by the architect Sinan . The construction, and later project management was carried out by the widow of Rustem Mikhrimah ^[51] . Other major construction projects were the Friday Mosque in Rodosto and the in Edirne. To ensure the operation of these funds and other projects, as well as , elementary schools, madrassas , hospices, tekke , caravanserais , public fountains, paved roads and free bridges, income from villages, fields, farms, factories, tanneries, bakeries, mills, shops, estates, warehouses, trade caravanserais, covered bazaars and commercial hammams ^[9] .

To ensure the operation of all funds, Rustem Pasha, in the event of his death, appointed Mikhrimah and their daughter Aisha Hyumashah Sultan as heirs to his state ^[9] .

The number and names of Rustem Pasha’s children are little known, the literary records on this subject are contradictory. It is well known that Rustem Pasha had a daughter from Mihrimah Aisha Humashah Hanim Sultan ^[52] . Her husbands and children were very influential and held important government posts. The same applies to the grandchildren Aishe Humashah.

The nameless son of Rustem Pasha and Mihrimah Sultan rests in a turbine next to his father. He died shortly before his father died from an epidemic ^[15] . Two other nameless graves located in the Mosque of Mikhrim in Uskudar are considered the graves of the sons of Mikhrim and Rustem. There is also the grave of Osman Bey (1576/77), the son of Rustem Pasha from another mother ^{[53] [54] [55]} .

The only daughter of Rustem Pasha and Mihrimah Sultan was born in 1543 (according to other sources, in 1541) and died in 1594/1595. In the year of her father's death, she married Semiz Ahmed Pasha , who later became the great vizier. And after his death, she married Nishanji Feridun Bey ^[56] . Aisha Humashah is buried in the complex of Aziz Mahmoud Hudayi ^[57] . Aisha Hümashah married two daughters in marriage with Ahmed Pasha (Salih Sultan; the name of the second daughter is unknown) and four sons (Osman Bey (d. 1591), Mehmed Bey (d. June 20, 1593), Abdurrahman Bey (mind after 1597) and Mustafa Pasha (d. June 20, 1593)) ^{[58] [59] [60]} .

Yusuf Sinan Pasha in 1573 married the eldest of two daughters, Aisha Hyumashah Sultan - Salihe Sultan. After the death of his wife in 1576, Yusuf Sinan married his youngest daughter, Aisha Humashah. Two sons were born in this marriage: Mahmud Pasha (d. 1643) and Hussein Bey ^[52] .

• In the Turkish television series “ Alexandra Anastasia Lisowska Sultan ”, the role of Rustem Pasha was played by ^[61] .
• In the Turkish TV series “The Magnificent Century, ” Ozan Gyuven played the role of Rustem Pasha ^[62] .