Turkish economy

The following table shows the main economic indicators for 1980-2018. Inflation less than 5% is indicated by a green arrow. ^[21]

The share of industry in the country's economy is about 33%, agriculture - 9%, services - 58% (2012). In the total volume of industrial production the processing industry has the greatest weight (84%, including construction). The textile, leather, food, chemical, pharmaceutical industries, energy, metallurgy, shipbuilding, automotive and electrical household goods are developed. A dynamically developing industry is tourism. Currently, due to competition from East Asian countries, the textile industry in Turkey is experiencing a decline (-12% in 2005). Of the most dynamic sectors, the automobile (+ 9.6% in 2005) and chemical industries (+7.2% in 2005) can be distinguished.

The country’s distinction from European countries is low employment among women - in 2011 only 27% of Turkish women worked ^[9] .

The property

The real estate sector accounts for 19.5% of GDP, $ 1.6 billion in direct investments (out of $ 12.5 billion in 2012). Foreigners were sold $ 2.64 billion worth of real estate.

Ottoman Empire

In 1838, Great Britain imposed a free trade agreement on the Ottoman Empire , which led to an increase in the dependence of the Turkish economy on Western Europe. In 1881, the administration of the national debt was established under the government of the Ottoman Empire, whose activities were determined by foreigners ^[22] .

By the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire had become a “ sick man of Europe ”, its survival depended on the policies of foreign powers ^[23]

Republic of Turkey

In 2001, Turkey experienced a financial and economic crisis - the worst in the last two decades of development under conditions of economic liberalization . Its gross national product in fixed prices decreased by 9.5%. Almost all industries and sectors of the economy have experienced a decline. Value added in the processing industry decreased by 8.1%, in extractive industry - by 8.8%, in agriculture - by 6.5%; the decline in services amounted to 6.1%, including in domestic trade - 9.4%. In 2002, economic growth was restored - GNP grew by 7.1% - and continued in the following years at a rather high, albeit uneven pace: in 2003 - 5.9%, in 2004 - 9.9%, in 2005, it was estimated at about 5% instead of the expected 7%. The adverse situation on the world market, and especially the rise in oil prices, the need for which Turkey provides more than 90% of imports, has had an effect. The main western lenders of Turkey are the IMF and the World Bank, as well as increasingly individual countries and EU funds. The total volume of loans received by Turkey in the first five years of the current century from these sources exceeds $ 30 billion.

Hyperinflation has constantly held back foreign direct investment in Turkey, despite all the measures taken to attract them. One evidence of this is the fact that out of the cumulative amount of foreign investment of $ 35 billion announced between 1981 and 2003, the country actually received only about $ 16 billion. Inflationary conditions associated with it are extremely expensive in recent years. Decades have become one of the reasons for the growing export of Turkish capital abroad - mainly to the EU countries . The total amount of Turkish foreign investment at the end of 2004 was estimated at $ 7 billion. Since 2002 Turkey has experienced a decrease in the rate of inflation, and in 2005 a new Turkish lira was issued, equal to one million old liras. In 2013, Turkey received 5.1 billion in foreign direct investment (almost twice as much as in 2012, in 2014 - 12.5 billion), a quarter of which were real estate investments. ^[24]

In the first quarter of 2011, the Turkish economy grew by 11%, ahead of China’s economy and becoming a headache for the Central Bank, which is trying to curb the credit boom . A large number of loans and a significant trade deficit, according to experts, pose a threat to financial stability in the country. In terms of economic growth, Turkey in the first quarter of 2011 was ahead of all the countries of the “Big Twenty” (G-20), which includes the largest economies of the world (China's economy grew by 9.7% in the first four months of 2011).

2010 - increased by 8.9%.

2011 - ... The official forecast for the current year is 4.5%, but the ministers have already announced that economic growth for the year will be at least 6%.

2014 - in the fourth quarter amounted to 2.6%. Nominal GDP was $ 800 billion, per capita - $ 10,404.

In agriculture, Turkey employs about 25% of the working population, it provides 9% of GDP. The food trade balance is positive: imports account for $ 10.7 billion in imports ($ 15.7 billion in exports (data for 2012 ^[25] ). 27% of the land is cultivated; freshwater reserves amount to 213.6 cubic km.

Turkey is the world leader in the harvest of hazelnuts , cherries , dates , apricots , quince and pomegranates (2007 ^[26] ). Also ranks second in watermelons , cucumbers and chickpeas ; the third in tomatoes , eggplants , green pepper, lentils and pistachios ; the fourth in bows and olives ; the fifth is sugarcane ; sixth tobacco , tea and apples ; the seventh in cotton and barley , the eighth in almonds ; the ninth in wheat , rye, and grapefruit ; tenth lemons . Fruit and nuts exported for $ 3.8 billion

The share of industry steadily grew from 17% in 1960 to 35% in 1999 ^[27] , after which it began to decline gradually. The growth is largely due to the shift of production from Europe and North America to developing countries with cheap labor (which was and in part Turkey continues to be).

Extractive Industry

The mining industry in 2013 brought revenue of $ 12.8 billion. Since Turkey is in the zone of tectonic fault, stretching from the Himalayas to the Pyrenees, its depths are quite rich in metal ores. Gold reserves are small, 700 tons (mining 29 tons in 2012). Aluminum mining does not cover the needs.

Turkey exports chrome ($ 450 million), marble ($ 2,224 million), feldspar (mining 4.5 million tons, second place; exports $ 104.0 million, first place in the world), barite (mining 0.2 million tons, exports $ 19.4 million), pumice (the world leader in mining) ^[28] .

Oil consumption is 31.5 million tons (2012), while own production is only 2.3 million tons; Imports are mainly from Russia and Iran. Natural gas production covers 2% of the demand, the rest is also imported. Turkey is of great importance in the transit of gas to Europe.

Coal mining in 2011 amounted to 75.9 million tons, another 26.3 million tons imported.

Automotive industry

The automotive industry began to develop in the 60s of the XX century. Currently, it employs 400 thousand people, it accounts for 16% of exports. Production of cars increased from 374 thousand in 2002 to 1,125,534 in 2013.
Turkey ranks 16th in the world in the production of cars, and the largest manufacturer of passenger cars in Europe.
In 2013, 828 thousand cars were exported to such countries as Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain, Romania and the USA.

There are 13 car factories located in Turkey, Renault (310,000 cars), Ford (265,000 cars), FIAT (255,000 cars), Hyundai (100,000 cars), Toyota (70,000 cars), Honda (15 000 cars), Opel , Daimler , Isuzu and MAN . In addition, local-made buses such as BMC , Temsa and Otokar are also manufactured in Turkey. ^[29]

Chemical Industry

Turkey ranks third in Europe (after Germany and Italy) for the production of plastics (7.2 million tons, $ 30 billion), sixth in Europe for the production of paints . According to the need for fertilizers it ranks tenth in the world

Export of chemical products in 2013 amounted to $ 17.5 billion, the main consumers: Egypt, Iraq and Germany.

Electronics

The electronics sector accounts for 2% of GDP. Goods produced at $ 12.4 billion (2012 ^[30] ). Electronics is imported at $ 16.1 billion, exported at $ 6.8 billion, while imports decline (by 3.7% per year), and exports increase (by 5.2% per year).

The main sectors are consumer electronics (34.8%), telecommunications equipment (19%), professional equipment (17%), computer equipment (15%), defense electronics (9%). The main export goods of this industry are televisions (in 2012, 11.6 million televisions were produced, 87% of them were exported, mainly to the EU countries). Refrigerators, dishwashers, washing machines and microwaves are also exported. Turkey's share in the global market for air conditioners is 1.8% (from $ 85 billion).

The largest companies in this sector: Vestel , Arçelik , Karel , Beko

Light industry

The textile industry is most often associated with Turkey, but since the 1980s its share in the structure of the economy has been steadily declining, although the percentage of people employed in it remains high. In 2007, its turnover amounted to about $ 30 billion, export volume - $ 24 billion (in 2009 - $ 19.3 billion). The presence of foreign capital in this industry is insignificant, small and medium enterprises prevail.

Energy is a key sector of the Turkish economy, on the state of which the further economic development of the whole country depends.

In 1980-2008 In the Turkish energy sector, fundamental changes have occurred due to its reorientation from hydropower and oil to natural gas . In 1980, 48.8% of energy was produced on the basis of hydroresources, and 25.1% of energy in oil, in 2008 these figures were 17.0% and 9.1%, respectively ^[31] . But the share of energy produced on the basis of natural gas in 1997–2008 increased from 21.4% to 43.1% ^[31] .

In the 2000s, the energy sector went through stages of growth in consumption and production, liberalization, privatization and private investment, which significantly increased its competitiveness (especially after the privatization of distribution and partially hydro and thermal production assets). The installed capacity of power plants increased from 23.3 GW in 1998 to 44.8 GW in 2009 (34% of the capacity was accounted for gas power plants, 33% for hydroelectric power plants, 24% for coal-fired power plants). In 2008, energy consumption reached 102 million tons in oil equivalent or 1,420 kg per capita (periods of energy consumption decline occurred during periods of economic crises of 2000–2001 and 2008–2009) ^{[32] [33] [34] [35]} .

In 2010, Turkey produced 201.2 billion kWh of electricity, ranking 22nd in the world in terms of this indicator, and exported over 1.9 billion kWh (41st in the world) ^[36] .
In 2012, electricity production in the country reached 239 billion kWh (596 kW-hours per capita; on average in the European Union - 1786 kW-hour), the installed capacity of power plants amounted to 57 GW (about 44% of the capacity was accounted for gas power plants, 35 % - at hydroelectric power stations) ^{[37] [38]} .

36% of electricity comes from natural gas, 35% from hydroelectric power stations, 23% from coal, 2% from oil and 5% from renewable sources. In the late 2010s, it is planned to begin, with the help of Russia, the construction of nuclear power plants.

The largest electricity producers are (EÜAŞ or Electricity Generation Company), ENKA Power , Aksa Enerji , Iskenderun Enerji , , , Baymina Enerji , , , Trakya Elektrik and Çalık Enerji . Due to the privatization of power plants and significant private investment (both Turkish and foreign), the share of the public sector in the production of electricity decreased from 84% in 1984 to 53% in 2009. In the course of energy liberalization, such global giants as the German E.ON , RWE and EnBW , the French Électricité de France and GDF Suez , the Norwegian , the Austrian OMV and Verbund , the Czech , the American Cogentrix Energy , Canadian , Japanese Kansai Electric Power and Sumitomo Corporation . A significant part of the energy sector enterprises were privatized, including those with foreign participation. ^[39]

Thermal Power

As of 2009, the capacity of thermal power plants accounted for more than 65% of the capacity of all power plants in Turkey ^[36] . Gas (running on imported gas) and coal (running on Turkish brown coal) dominate among thermal power plants, and the share of power plants running on oil and fuel oil is constantly decreasing.

Elektrik Üretim ^{[ who? ]} controls coal-fired power plants in Elbistan , Zonguldak , Orhaneli , Kangale , Soma and Yatagan , oil power stations in Istanbul and Khope , gas power stations in Istanbul , Bursa , Luleburgaz and Aliaga , geothermal power station in Denizli ^[40] . ENKA Power ^{[ who? ]} controls gas power plants in Izmir , Gebze and Adapazaris ^[41] . Aksa enerji ^{[ who? ]} - gas power plants in Hakkari and Mardin , biogas power plant in Bursa ^[42] , Iskenderun Enerji - coal power plant in Yumurtalik ^[43] , Ciner Energy and Mining Group - coal power plants in Nallykhan and Silopi ^[44] .

Hydropower

In 2008, the capacity of the Turkish hydropower industry exceeded 14 GW (excluding several large projects that were under construction), in 2012 the country's hydropower plants produced 165 billion kWh of electricity. The largest hydropower plants owned by Elektrik Üretim include the Atatürk dam ( лыanlıurfa ), the Karakaya dam ( Diyarbakır ), ( Elazı ) and ( Samsun ). In total, as of 2012, the company operated 84 hydropower stations ^{[35] [37] [45]} .

Other renewable energies

Since 2005, the authorities began to actively support renewable energy (special tariffs and incentives for investors were introduced, priority access to the network was provided). Due to this, in recent years in Turkey, substantial funds have been invested in solar and wind energy parks, as well as in geothermal and biofuel energy capacities. However, despite this, the share of alternative energy sources did not exceed 1% of the capacity of all power plants. As of the end of 2008, 0.9% of the capacity of all power plants was accounted for by wind generators and 0.1% by geothermal plants (while 66% of capacity was accounted for by thermal power plants and 33% by hydroelectric power plants).

Most of the wind turbines are installed on the coast of the Aegean and Marmara Seas and belong to small private operators, while the majority of geothermal stations are located in the Aegean region (although Turkey is among the top five world leaders in the potential of geothermal resources, it uses only 3% of its capabilities) ^{[32] [35 ] [46]} .

By the end of 2012, the capacity of the Turkish wind power industry was 2312 MW (with 506 MW added in 2012). Nearly 924 MW of wind power capacity accounted for the Marmara Sea Region , 875 MW for the Aegean , 384 MW for the Mediterranean . The top five players in the wind energy market include Demirer Holding , Bilgin Energy , Polat Energy , EnerjiSa and Aksa Energy ^[46] .

Solar energy, despite its great potential, is poorly developed and limited to flat solar collectors for water heating. Photovoltaic solar panels are used in lighthouses and in highway lighting (in 2009, their total capacity was 5 MW) ^[35] .

Nuclear power

Turkey is implementing two projects in the field of nuclear energy - Akkuyu NPP with the help of Russia (construction began in 2017) and Sinop NPP with the help of France and Japan.

В последние десятилетия всё большее значение в экономике Турции играет туризм . В нём заняты около двух миллионов человек (510 тыс. непосредственно, ещё 1,5 млн в смежных отраслях). Страна занимает шестое место в мире среди популярных направлений среди туристов.

Турция имеет все предпосылки для развития этой отрасли сферы обслуживания: она омывается четырьмя морями, побережье имеет субтропический средиземноморской климат (длина береговой линии составляет 7200 км, на ней 355 пляжей ); 2870 отелей на 700 тыс. мест ^[47] , она занимает второе место в Европе и седьмое в мире по количеству термальных источников (1300); имеет большое количество достопримечательностей (развалины древнегреческих и древнеримских городов, включая легендарную Трою , памятники времён Византийской и Османской империй). Развитая сеть внутреннего транспорта позволяет с комфортом перемещаться в любую точку страны ^[48] .

Российские туристические фирмы в основном работают в направлении Антальи , а также окружающих её городов: Кемер , Аланья , Белек и др. В последние годы всё большую популярность приобретает и ил Мерсин . Также, есть множество турфирм в Турции, которые позволяют прямо на месте заказать тур и проживание практически на любой вкус.

Экспорт в 2014 году составил $158 млрд, импорт — $242 млрд, Дефицит внешней торговли — $84 млрд. Государственное управление статистики в Анкаре сообщило о рекордном уровне торгового дефицита, представляющего собой разницу между импортом и экспортом. Торговый дефицит в мае 2010 составил 10,1 млрд долл. Рост цен в глобальном энергетическом секторе может привести к ещё большему дефициту. Но Центральный банк Турецкой Республики настаивает на том, что угрозы «перегрева» экономики нет. ^[49]

Экономические связи с Россией

В 2005 году товарооборот между Россией и Турцией достиг рекордного за все годы показателя — почти 15 млрд долларов. По прогнозам Минпромэнерго РФ в 2008 году он может достигнуть 25 млрд долларов.

Основная составляющая российского экспорта приходится на топливно-энергетические товары (более 62 %). Затем следуют металлоизделия (28,1 %), химтовары (4 %), древесина и целлюлозно-бумажная продукция (2,4 %), сельхозтовары (1,6 %). В Турцию поступает российский газ по трубопроводу, проложенному по дну Чёрного моря.

В импорте из Турции преобладают текстиль и текстильные изделия, машины и транспортные средства, продукция химической промышленности и продовольственные товары. В последние годы активизировалось участие турецких компаний в строительстве различных объектов в России, к примеру аквапарка. В России в настоящее время работает более 150 турецких строительных фирм. С конца 1980-х годов турецкими фирмами построено в России около 800 объектов.

На 2017 год минимальный размер оплаты труда в Турции составил 1777.5 турецких лир, что составляет 514.99 долларов США. В 2018 году минимальный размер оплаты труда в Турции составляет 2029 турецких лир (брутто) ( $ 445.36) и 1603 (нетто) ( $ 351.85). С 1 января 2019 году минимальный размер оплаты труда в Турции составляет 2558 турецких лир (брутто) ( $ 469.61) и 2020.59 (нетто) ( $ 370.99). ^{[50] [51] [52]}

• Список крупнейших компаний Турции
• Телекоммуникации в Турции

• Розалиев Ю. Н. Экономическая история Турецкой Республики. Ответственный редактор А. Искандеров М.: Наука, 1980. - 304с

• turkishnews.ru - Новости экономики и бизнеса Турции
• antalyatoday.ru - Новости турецкой экономики